Introduction

Matrilin-3 is a member of the recently described matrilin family of extracellular matrix proteins containing von Willebrand factor A-like domains. The matrilin-3 subunit can form homotetramers as well as hetero-oligomers together with subunits of matrilin-1 (cartilage matrix protein). It has a restricted tissue distribution and is strongly expressed in growing skeletal tissues. Detailed information on expression and distribution of extracellular matrix proteins is important to understand cartilage function in health and in disease like osteoarthritis.

Methods

Matrilin-3 expression was analysed on decalcified normal cartilage/bone sections (N = 5) and decalcified cartilage/ bone sections with minor (N= 10), moderate (N = 10), and severe osteoarthritic lesions (N = 10). Osteoarthritic changes were classified histomorphologically, using the grading system of Mankin. Matrilin-3 expression was investigated by immunohistochemistry, in situ hybridization, Western blot analysis, and quantitative PCR. For immunohistochemistry, a polyclonal antibody against matrilin-3 was used. For Western blot analysis, cartilage extracts were obtained from normal and osteoarthritic samples, partially purified, and separated in SDS poly-acrylamide gelelectrophoreses. After blotting onto nitro-cellulose, matrilin-3 was visualized by incubation with the polyclonal anti-matrilin-3 antibody and chemiluminescence detection. Matrilin-3 -mRNA expression was determined by in situ hybridization using a digoxigenin-labeled anti-sense probe.

Results

Our results indicate that matrilin-3 is a mandatory component of mature articular cartilage with its expression being restricted to chondrocytes from the tangential zone and the upper middle cartilage zone. Osteoarthritic cartilage samples with only moderate morphological osteoarthritic destructions have elevated levels of matrilin-3 mRNA. In parallel, we found an increased deposition of matrilin-3 protein in the cartilage matrix. Matrilin-3 staining was diffusely distributed in the cartilage matrix, with no cellular staining being detectable. In cartilage samples with minor osteoarthritic lesions, matrilin-3 deposition was restricted to the middle zone and to the upper deep zone. A strong correlation was found between enhanced matrilin-3 gene and protein expression and the extent of tissue damage. Sections with severe osteoarthritic destruction showed the highest amount of matrilin-3 mRNA, strong signals in in situ hybridization, and prominent protein deposition in the middle and deep cartilage zone.

Conclusion

We conclude that matrilin-3 is an integral component of human articular cartilage matrix and that the enhanced expression of matrilin-3 in osteoarthritis may be a cellular response to the modified microenvironment in the disease.

Growth factors produced by inflammatory cells and mesenchymal progenitors are required for proper bone regeneration. Signaling pathways activated downstream of these proteins work in concert and synergistically to drive osteoblast and/or chondrocyte differentiation. While dysregulation can result in abnormal healing, activating these pathways in the correct spatiotemporal context can enhance healing. Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling is well-recognized as being required for bone regeneration, and BMP is used clinically to enhance bone healing. However, it is imperative to develop new therapeutics that can be used alone or in conjunction with BMP to drive even more robust healing. Notch signaling is another highly conserved signaling pathway involved in tissue development and regeneration. Our work has explored Notch signaling during osteoblastogenesis and bone healing using both in vitro studies with human primary mesenchymal progenitor cells and in vivo studies with genetically modified mouse models. Notch signaling is required and sufficient for osteoblast differentiation, and is required for proper bone regeneration. Indeed, intact Notch signaling through the Jagged-1 ligand is required for BMP induced bone formation. On-going work continues to explore the intersection between BMP and Notch signaling, and determining cell types that express Notch receptors and Notch ligands during bone healing. Our long-term objective is to develop Notch signaling as a clinical therapy to repair bone

Bone healing outcome is highly dependent on the initial mechanical fracture environment [1]. In vivo, direct bone healing requires absolute stability and an interfragmentary strain (IFS) below 2% [2]. In the majority of cases, however, endochondral ossification is engaged where frequency and amplitude of IFS are key factors. Still, at the cellular level, the influence of those parameters remains unknown. Understanding the regulation of naïve hMSC differentiation is essential for developing effective bone healing strategies. Human bone-marrow-derived MSC (KEK-ZH-NR: 2010–0444/0) were embedded in 8% gelatin methacryol. Samples (5mm Ø x 4mm) were subjected to 0, 10 and 30% compressive strain (5sec compression, 2hrs pause sequence for 14 days) using a multi-well uniaxial bioreactor (RISystem) and in presence of chondro-permissive medium (CP, DMEM HG, 1% NEAA, 10 µM ITS, 50 µg/mL ascorbic acid, and 100 mM Dex). Cell differentiation was assessed by qRT-PCR and histo-/immunohistology staining. Experiments were repeated 5 times with cells from 5 donors in duplicate. ANOVA with Tukey post-hoc correction or Kurskal-Wallis test with Dunn's correction was used. Data showed a strong upregulation of hypertrophic related genes COMP, MMP13 and Type 10 collagen upon stimulation when compared to chondrogenic SOX9, ACAN, Type 2 collagen or to osteoblastic related genes Type 1 Collagen, Runx2. When compared to chondrogenic control medium, cells in CP with or without stimulation showed low proteoglycan synthesis as shown by Safranine-O-green staining. In addition, the cells were significantly larger in 10% and 30% strain compared to control medium with 0% strain. Type 1 and 10 collagens immunostaining showed stronger Coll 10 expression in the samples subjected to strain compared to control. Uniaxial deformation seems to mainly promote hypertrophic-like chondrocyte differentiation of MSC. Osteogenic or potentially late hypertrophic related genes are also induced by strain. Acknowledgments: Funded by the AO Foundation, StrainBot sponsored by RISystemAG & PERRENS 101 GmbH

Introduction. Cartilage homeoprotein 1 (CART-1) is a homeoprotein which has been suggested to play a role in chondrocyte differentiation and in skeletal development. It is expressed mainly in prechondrocytic mesenchymal condensations. Patients with mutations in the CART-1 gene display several craniofacial abnormalities, suggesting that CART-1 has a functional role in craniofacial skeletal development. However, its target genes and position in the established chondrogenic pathways is poorly documented. Given the fact that CART-1 is expressed predominantly in the chondrocyte lineage and its role in skeletal development, we hypothesized that CART-1 regulates expression of several pivotal genes involved in chondrogenic differentiation. Methods. The coding sequence of human CART-1 was custom synthesized with optimized codon usage and cloned into a p3XFLAG-CMV-7.1 expression vector. FLAG-CART-1 was transiently overexpressed in SW1353 cells by polyethyleneimine-mediated transfection (1,000 ng of plasmid/well in 12-well plates). FLAG-Empty vector was used as a negative control. FLAG-CART-1 overexpression was confirmed by means of anti-FLAG immunoblotting. To investigate a potential connection between CART-1 and established key chondrogenic pathways, TGFβ3 (10 ng/mL) was added to SW1353 cells in CART-1 overexpression cultures or their appropriate controls. Cells were harvested 48 hours after transfection and mRNA expression of several genes involved in chondrogenic differentiation was determined by qRT-PCR. Data represent three separate experiments performed in technical triplicate. Results. Overexpression of CART-1 was confirmed on protein level. CART-1 significantly upregulated the expression of hypertrophic markers MMP13 and COLX, while the expression of RUNX2, ALP and COL1 was significantly downregulated. The expression of COL2A1 and SOX9 was not altered in the presence of CART1. TGFβ3 significantly decreased MMP13 expression in SW1353 cultures, but induced the expression of COLX, RUNX2 and COL1. This TGFβ3 dependent behaviour was reversed when CART-1 was overexpressed in these cultures. Conclusion. Our results implicate a functional role for the homeodomain protein CART-1 in controlling the expression of several markers involved in chondrocyte differentiation and show important interactions with other signaling pathways involved in chondrogenic differentiation. Current efforts focus on further elucidating the connection between CART-1 and other chondrogenic pathways

Purpose of the study: Monolayer cultures of chondrocytes multiply and rapidly lose their chondrocyte phenotype, limiting their potential for tissue engineering. Mesenchymatous stem cells can preserve their phenotypic characteristics after several monolayer passages, offering a promising alternative for cartilage repair. The purpose of this work was to study the influence of transforming growth factor beta-1 (TGF-beta1) and bone morphogenic protein-2 (BMP2) and/or culture supplements (hyaluronic acid) on matrix synthesis and chondrocyte differentiation of human mesenchymatous stem cells (MSC) cultured on collagen sponges. Material and methods: MSC were isolated from bone marrow harvested during hip arthroplsty. At the third passage in monolayer culture, the MSC were reseeded on collagen sponges and cultured in vitro for 28 days under seven differ conditions: insulin transferrin selenium (ITS), foetal calf serum (FCS), ITS+TGFbeta1, ITS+ hyaluronate, ITS+TGFbeta1+hyaluronate, ITS+TGFbeta1+BMP2, ITS +TGFbeta1+BMP2+hyaluronate. The phenotypic evolution was followed using the expression of different genes of interest with PCRq (collagen2, collagen1, collagen3, collagen10, agrecanne, versicanne, COMP, Sox9). Synthesis of matrix material was assessed histologically and immunohistochemically. Results: Used alone, hyaluronic acid did not trigger chondrocyte differentiation of MSC. For the additives FCS, ITS, or hyaluronate, the synthesis of matrix material in the sponge was weak and poor in major constituents of cartilage. Conversely, the other conditions in presence of TGFbeta1±BMP2 induced important expression of collagen2, agrecanne and COMP as well as increased matrix synthesis with a strong content in proteoglycans and collagen. Discussion: The usefulness of MSC is growing due to their pluripotent characteristics. The conditions leading to their differentiation into the chondrocyte phenotype remains a subject of discussion. Our results show the particular importance of TGFbeta1 in the process of differentiation. Conclusion: Chondrogenic differentiation of MSC cultured in collagen sponges as well as the synthesis of the cartilaginous matrix requires the presence of TGFbeta1 in the culture medium and to a lesser extent BMP2. These results suggest the perspective of using MSC for guided cell therapy targeting cartilage

Cartilage is a realistic target for tissue engineering given the avascular nature and cellular composition of the tissue. Much of the work in this field has been largely empirical, indicating the need for alternative approaches to the design of cartilage formation protocols. Given the heterogeneity associated with human mesenchymal populations, continuous cell lines may offer an alternative to model and simplify cartilage generation protocols. We therefore exploited the potential of the murine chondrocytic ATDC5 cell line to, i) delineate the process of chondrocyte differentiation in monolayer culture and three-dimensional micromass pellet culture systems, and ii) model cartilage formation utilising appropriate scaffold and bioreactor (perfused and rotating) technologies. Monolayer cultures of ATDC5 cells over a 28-day period in presence of insulin demonstrated various stages of chondrocyte differentiation- proliferative, pre-hypertrophic, hypertrophic and finally, mineralisation of cartilaginous nodules. This was confirmed by gene and protein expression, by qPCR and Western blotting respectively, of chondrogenic differentiation markers- Sox-9, Bcl-2, Type II and X collagens. Pellet cultures of ATDC5 cells under chondrogenic conditions (10 ng/ml TGF-beta3, 1X ITS {insulin, transferrin, selenium}, 10 nanomolar dexamethasone, 100 micromolar ascorbate-2-phosphate) illustrated a gradual progression from an aggregation of cells at day 7, to initiation of matrix synthesis at day 14, followed by formation of well-defined cartilaginous structures at day 21. Chondrogenic differentiation at day 21 was evident by numerous proliferative/ pre-hypertrophic chondrocytes, staining for Sox-9, Aggrecan, Type II collagen and PCNA, lodged in distinct lacunae embedded in cartilaginous matrix of proteogly-cans and Type II collagen. Inclusion of TGF-beta3 in the chondrogenic medium during pellet culture beyond 21 days maintained the pre-hypertrophic phenotype, even at day 28. In contrast, removal of TGF-beta3, addition of 50 nanomolar thyroxine and reduction of dexa-methasone to 1 nanomolar in the chondrogenic medium stimulated hypertrophy at day 28, evident by down-regulation of Sox-9 expression. ATDC5 cells cultured on Polyglycolic acid fleece in the rotating bioreactor or encapsulated in chitosan /alginate and cultured in the perfused bioreactor for 21 days, formed cartilaginous explants reminiscent of hyaline cartilage. Thus, ATDC5 cells constitute an ideal cell line to elucidate the steps of chondrocyte differentiation and cartilage formation

Introduction. In vitro expansion of human articular chondrocytes (HACs) is required for cell-based strategies to treat cartilage defects. We have earlier shown that culturing HACs at increased osmolarity (i.e., 380 mOsm), as compared to plasma osmolarity (i.e., 280 mOsm), increases collagen type II (COL2A1) expression in vitro. Our earlier results showed that knockdown of TGF-β2, a prototypic member of the TGF-β superfamily and an accepted key regulator of chondrocyte differentiation, resulted in increased COL2A1 production. BMPs are members of the TGF-β superfamily which are known to be involved in the regulation of COL2A1 expression. In this study, we aimed to elucidate the role of BMP signaling, in the upregulation of COL2 production upon TGF-β2 knockdown (KD) under hyperosmotic culture conditions. Methods. HACs from five OA patients (passage 1) were cultured in cytokine-free medium, under 280 or 380 mOsm respectively, under standard 2D in vitro conditions. TGF-β2 knockdown (KD) by siRNA was performed in the presence or absence of the established bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) type I receptor (BMPRI) inhibitor dorsomorphin (10 μM). Expression of COL2A1 was evaluated by qRT-PCR. Results. Culturing HACs at 380 mOsm increased COL2A1 mRNA expression. Addition of dorsomorphin decreased COL2A1 mRNA expression at both 280 and 380 mOsm, but its expression was still significantly higher at 380 mOsm. In hyperosmotic 380 mOsm culture conditions, TGF-β2 KD further increased COL2A1 mRNA expression, while addition of dorsomorphin under these conditions abrogated this effect. Still, expression of COL2A1 mRNA levels remained higher as compared to 280 mOsm. Conclusion. This study confirms that BMP signalling is involved in the expression of the single best accepted key chondrocyte marker, COL2A1, in osteoarthritic HACs. However, inhibition of BMP signalling could not abrogate the increase in COL2A1 expression under hyperosmotic culture conditions. Our data suggest an inverse regulation of TGF-β2 and COL2A1, under these conditions, which may largely be dependent on increased BMPRI-mediated cell signaling. Our findings further suggest that hyperosmotic culture improves COL2A1 expression by means that are independent of TGF-β- and BMPRI-signaling. Further elucidation of the molecular network underlying this observation is ongoing

Adult chondrocytes experience a hypoxic environment in vivo. Culturing chondrocytes under oxygen tension that more closely resembles the in vivo situation, i.e. hypoxic conditions, has been shown to have positive effects on matrix synthesis. During redifferentiation of expanded chondrocytes, hypoxia increased collagen type II expression. However, the mechanism by which hypoxia enhances redifferentiation is still incompletely elucidated. We employed micro-bioreactor technology to elucidate the contribution of TGF-β superfamily ligands to the chondrocyte differentiation process under hypoxic conditions in vitro. Dedifferentiated chondrocytes in alginate were cultured for 48 hours under hypoxic (1% pO2) or normoxic (20%) conditions, using specialized bioreactor technology. Gene expression of chondrocyte-specific markers (SOX9, COL2A1, COL1A1, AGC1 and MMP13) as well as established hypoxia-controlled genes (GDF1-, PHD3, HAS2, VEGF, COX2) and components of the TGF-β superfamily signaling pathways were analyzed by qPCR and protein expression after 48 hours in combination with TGF-β superfamily ligand-specific siRNA as well as selected TGF-β superfamily receptor inhibitors. Hypoxic culture showed robust upregulation of the selected hypoxia-specific marker genes. In addition, well-established chondrocyte-specific markers like SOX9 and collagen type II were upregulated. TGF-β isoforms were selectively upregulated under hypoxia on both mRNA and protein level. In addition, both Activin receptor-like kinases, ALK1 and ALK5, were upregulated under hypoxia, while respective type II and III receptors were unresponsive. The hypoxia-induced COL2 expression was abrogated by TGF-β2 siRNA, as was ALK5 inhibition. Our data strongly indicates that TGF-β superfamily signaling pathways are involved in chondrocyte redifferentiation under low oxygen tension in vitro

Background. Transcription factor nuclear factor E2p45-related factor 2 (Nrf2) is crucial for controlling the antioxidant response and maintaining cellular redox homeostasis. Binding of Nrf2 to antioxidant response elements (ARE) promotes the expression of anti-oxidative stress enzymes. In osteoblasts, Nrf2 directly interacts with Runx2, a strong transcriptional activator of osteoblast-specific genes. Sox9, a key regulator of chondrocyte differentiation is dominant over Runx2 in mesenchymal chondrogenic precursors. We therefore aimed to elucidate the role of Nrf2, and its regulation of Sox9, in chondrocytes. Methods. ARE sites in SOX9 promoter fragments were inactivated and cloned into pGL3 prior to co-transfection with phRL-TK into C-28/I2 cells for dual luciferase assay (n=4). Analyses of Nrf2 and Sox9 expression (n=3), following Nrf2 RNA interference (RNAi) (Sigma-Mission shRNAs library), was performed by qPCR (Applied Biosystems) as well as by Nrf2 and Sox9 immunohistochemistry in femoral condyle cartilage of wild type (WT) and Nrf2-knockout (KO) mice with ethical approval. Results. The Sox9 promoter region contains several putative antioxidant response elements. Mutagenesis of the ARE2 site reduced SOX9 promoter activity by 50%. Successful knock-down of Nrf2 using Nrf2-specific shRNAs in C-28/I2 chondrocytes also revealed parallel suppression of Sox9 mRNA. Furthermore, Nrf2-KO mice have fewer Sox9-positive-chondrocytes in their articular cartilage compared to WT littermates. Conclusions. Successive deletion of two putative ARE sites in the SOX9 promoter region suggests that ARE2 positively regulates SOX9 transcription and is in line with Sox9 mRNA suppression upon Nrf-2-RNAi. Nrf2 binding may thus directly stimulate Sox9 expression. Nrf2-KO mice reveal reduced numbers of Sox9-positive hyaline chondrocytes, which may have important consequences for the extracellular matrix production in these animals. Our findings reveal a novel mechanism regulating extracellular matrix synthesis in chondrocytes and may improve cartilage regenerative medicine. Level of evidence. Preclinical

Background. Treatment of cartilage defects requires in vitro expansion of human articular chondrocytes (HACs) for autologous chondrocyte implantation (ACI). During standard expansion culture (i.e. plasma osmolarity, 280 mOsm) chondrocytes inevitably lose their specific phenotype (i.e. collagen type II (COL2) expression). This de-differentiation makes them inappropriate for ACI. Physiological osmolarity (i.e. 380 mOsm) improves COL2 expression in vitro, but the underlying reason is unknown. However, an accepted key regulator of chondrocyte differentiation, transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ), is known to stimulate COL2 production. In this study we aimed to elucidate if TGFβ signaling could potentially be driving the COL2 expression under physiological culture conditions. Material and methods. After informed consent was obtained, HACs were isolated from five osteoarthritis (OA) patients and cultured in cytokine-free medium of 280 or 380 mOsm, respectively, under standard 2D in vitro conditions with or without lentiviral TGFβ2 knockdown (RNAi). Expression of TGFβ isoforms, superfamily receptors and chondrocyte marker genes was evaluated by qRT-PCR, TGFβ2 protein secretion by ELISA and TGFβ bioactivity using luciferase reporter assays. Statistical significance was assessed by a student's t-test. Results. TGFβ isoform expression was differentially altered by physiological osmolarity. Specifically, 380 mOsm increased TGFβ2 expression and protein secretion, as well as TGFβ activity. Upon TGFβ2 isoform-specific knockdown COL2 expression was induced. Physiological osmolarity and TGFβ2 RNAi also induced TGFβ1, TGFβ3 and their type I receptor ALK5. Conclusions. We showed that TGFβ2 knockdown increases COL2 expression in human osteoarthritic chondrocytes in vitro, possibly through a regulatory feedback loop involving TGFβ1, TGFβ3 induction and an increased ALK5/ALK1 ratio. This study indicates that TGFβ signalling is involved in osmolarity-induced chondrocyte marker gene expression. Pharmacological targeting of this pathway holds potential to further improve future osmolarity-mediated phenotypic stabilisation in advanced cell-based cartilage repair strategies. Level of Evidence. preclinical. Disclosure. We have nothing to disclose

As cartilage has poor intrinsic repair capacity, in vitroexpansion of human articular chondrocytes (HACs) is required for cell-based therapies to treat cartilage pathologies. During standard expansion culture (i.e. plasma osmolarity, 280 mOsm) chondrocytes inevitably lose their specific phenotype and de-differentiate, which makes them inappropriate for autologous chondrocyte implantation. It has been shown that physiological osmolarity (i.e. 380 mOsm) increases collagen type II (COL2) expression in vitro, but the underlying molecular mechanism is unknown. Transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) super family members are accepted key regulators of chondrocyte differentiation and known to stimulate COL2 production. In this study we aimed to elucidate the role of TGFβ superfamily member signalling as a molecular mechanism potentially driving the COL2 expression under physiological (380 mOsm) culture conditions. HACs from OA patients (p1) were cultured in cytokine-free medium of 280 or 380 mOsm, under standard 2D in vitroconditions, with or without lentiviral TGFβ2 knockdown (RNAi). Expression of TGFβ isoforms, BMPs and chondrocyte marker genes was evaluated by QPCR. TGFβ2 protein secretion was evaluated using ELISA and bioactivity was determined using an established reporter cell line. Involvement of BMP signaling was investigated by culturing OA HACs (p1) in the presence or absence of dorsomorphin (10 µM). Physiological osmolarity increased TGFβ2 and TGFβ3 mRNA expression, TGFβ2 protein secretion as well as general TGFβ activity by 380 mOsm. Upon TGFβ2 isoform-specific knockdown COL2 mRNA expression was induced. TGFβ2 RNAi induced expression of several BMPs (e.g. BMP2,-4,-6) and this induction was enhanced in culture conditions with physiological osmolarity. Dorsomorphin inhibited physiological osmolarity induced COL2 mRNA expression. TGFβ2 knockdown under 380 mOsm increases COL2 expression in human osteoarthritic chondrocytes in vitromost likely through a regulatory feedback loop via BMP signaling, which is involved in osmolarity-induced COL2 expression. Future studies will further elucidate the BMP-mediated regulatory feedback loop after TGF β2 knockdown and its influence on COL2 expression

To regenerate the complex tissue such as bone-cartilage construct using tissue engineering approaches, controllable differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) into chondrogenic and osteogenic lineages is crucially important. Although bilayered scaffolds have been investigated in vitro and in vivo, no culture system is available to test BMSCs differentiation into bone and cartilage simultaneously in bilayered scaffolds. This study investigated a defined culture media, which supported osteoblast and chondrocyte differentiation depending on growth factors implemented in biomaterials. In 2-dimensional culture, BMSCs differentiated to chondrocytes when transforming growth factor-beta 3 (TGF-β3) was added to the defined media, whereas osteogenic differentiation was induced by adding bone morphogenetic protein 7 (BMP-7). BMSC differentiation to osteogenic and chondrogenic lineages was further strengthen in 3-dimensional culture. Proteoglycan formation, type II collagen, and aggrecan were upregulated in the defined media when BMSCs were mixed with fibrin gel impregnated with TGF-β3. Mineralization and the expression of osteogenic markers such as alkaline phosphatase, osteopontin, and osteoclacin were noticeable when BMSCs cultured in hydroxyapatite-tricalcium phosphate (HA/TCP) scaffolds coated with BMP-7. This study generated and tested a growth media, which could induce osteogenic and chondrogenic differentiation of BMSCs in one culture system. These results will help the development of tissue substitutes for multi-complexed tissues such as subchondral replacement

Introduction: Autologous chondrocyte transplantation (ACT) has been shown to be a promising method for restoring hyaline cartilage defects. Since it was first reported by Brittberg et al nine years worth of clinical follow up studies indicate that ACT has provided an excellent outcome in the restoration of hyaline cartilage. As ACT relies on the use of cultured cells and the biosynthetic profile of cultured chondrocytes has been shown to be altered during in vitro expansion, cultivation of chondrocytes for ACT has presented many technical and quality control challenges. Aim: To perform an assessment of the cellular phenotype of cultured chondrocytes, consistent with differentiation of articular hyaline cartilage, to ensure the delivery of ACT for restoration of hyaline cartilage. Methods: Using RT-PCR and flow cytometry analyses, we characterised the cellular phenotype of culture chondrocytes used for ACT. We examined several transcriptional factors, cytokines and matrix proteins necessary for the differentiation of chondrocytes in a total of 15 cases of ACT. These included SOX9, Cbfa1, Indian Hedgehog (Ihh), TGF-b3, BMP-2, PTHrP, type I and type II collagen, aggrecan and alkaline phosphatase. Results: The results demonstrated that there is a variety in the expression of these genetic makers but cultured cells used for ACT were within the programme of chondrocyte differentiation. Furthermore, there is variation in the level of apoptosis of chondrocytes between patients as evidenced by annexin V flow cytometry. As evidenced by MRI in two patient samples, apoptosis of chondrocytes greater than 8% was coincident with cases that could not restore hyaline cartilage three months after ACT. Conclusions: Given that there is a medical need for ACT in the treatment of articular cartilage injury, a process for monitoring the quality of culture chondrocyte prior to implantation may provide a better clinical outcome of ACT

Purpose: A major drawback of current cartilage and intervertebral disc tissue engineering is that human mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) from osteoarthritis (OA) patients express type X collagen (COL10), a marker of late-stage chondrocyte hypertrophy (associated with endochondral ossification). Parathyroid hormone (PTH) and parathyroid hormone-related peptide (PTHrP) regulate endochondral ossification by inhibiting chondrocyte differentiation toward hypertrophy. In the present study, we investigated the effect of PTH on the expression of COL10 in MSCs from OA patients and analyzed the potential mechanisms related to its effect. Method: MSCs were obtained from aspirates from the intramedullary canal of donors (60–80 years of age) undergoing total hip replacement for OA. Cells were cultured for 2–3 passages in DMEM high glucose supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum, 100 U/ml penicillin, and 100 μg/ml streptomycin. Cells were then incubated for 0–24h without (Control) or with 100 nM PTH (1–34). Cells were lysed and proteins were separated on 10% acrylamide gels and transferred to nitrocellulose membranes. Protein expression was detected by Western blot using specific antibodies directed against COL10, p38, phosphorylated-p38 (p-p38), SAP/JNK, phosphorylated-SAP/JNK (p-JUNK). GAPDH was used as a housekeeping gene. Protein levels were analyzed using a Bio-Rad VersaDoc equipped with a cooled CCD 12 bit camera. Results: Results showed that PTH inhibited in a time-dependent manner the expression of COL10 in MSCs from OA patients. The level of expression reached 21% of control (79% inhibition) after 24h. This inhibitory effect of PTH was reversed by Calphostin C, an inhibitor of protein kinase C. To further investigate the mechanism of action related to the effect of PTH on COL10 expression, we measured the phosphorylation of p38 and showed that PTH also inhibited this phosphorylation, which is an indicator of its activity. The level of phosphorylation reached 74% of control after 3h and stayed stable thereafter. Similarly, treatment of MSCs with PTH suppressed the phosphorylation of JNK, another major stress-activated MAP kinase. The level of phosphorylation reached 65% of control after 6h and returned to control values after 24h. Conclusion: Results of the present study suggested that PTH may be a potential regulator of COL10 expression in MSCs from OA patients. Results also suggested a role for the protein kinase C and the p38/JNK pathways in this regulation. p38 and JNK are serine and threonine protein kinases that are activated by osmotic pressure, stress, and cytokines. It is therefore not surprising that their activities were elevated as OA (degenerative joint disease) is a result of trauma or infection to the joint and is characterized by an up-regulation of cytokines. Further studies are however necessary to better understand the role of these molecules in hypertrophy

Introduction and Aims: There is cumulative evidence that BMP-14 has a role in chondrocyte maturation in endochondral ossification of growth plate. We hypothesise that BMP-14 has a similar role in bone regeneration following fracture. We aim to compare normal versus a gene knock-out mouse to demonstrate histologic, radiographic and biochemical deficiencies in the mouse that lacks the gene for BMP-14. Method: The brachypodism (bp) mouse has a homozygous form (BMP-14 −/−) that does not express BMP-14 and a heterozygous form (BMP-14 +/−) that does. Closed midshaft femur fractures were created and stabilised in eight-week female mice in both types of mice. Mice were euthanised at differing time points and the femurs harvested for DNA, proteoglycan, collagen determinations. Histology was performed with Tri-Chrome staining. Radiographs were taken at each time point to evaluate callus formation. Analysis for all quantitative measures was normalised and statistically evaluated using a two-way ANOVA. Results: Biochemical results show BMP-14 deficient (bp) mice having a five to seven-day delay in attaining peak values of DNA compared with controls. The time-dependent change of cellular proliferation reached significance. Peak values of proteoglycan content were three times less in the bp mouse in the early phase of healing in the bp mouse. Histologically, the BMP-14-deficient animals exhibited a delay in peak area of callus and callus organisation in the regenerating femur fracture. Radiographic analysis shows peak callus area was delayed two weeks, and had a decreased magnitude over that two-week span in the bp mice. Callus was less evident in the bp for time points throughout the study. Conclusion: We have produced evidence in this animal model that deficiency of BMP-14 is associated with a short-term delay in fracture healing. We also can demonstrate that there is a delay in cellular recruitment and chondrocyte differentiation in the first two weeks of fracture repair in the bp mouse. These results support our hypothesis that BP-14 has a significant role in fracture repair. There may be a use for BMP-14 in assisting long-bone fracture repair

Summary Statement. Wnt/β-catenin gene expression is altered in early osteochondrosis, particularly in chondrocytes surrounding cartilage canals, and may be associated with disease initiation and/or pathogenesis. Introduction. Osteochondrosis (OC) is a disease of articular cartilage development involving abnormal endochondral ossification along the osteochondral junction. Associated etiological factors of OC have included rapid growth rate, biomechanical trauma, abnormal collagen turnover, aberrant paracrine signaling, and altered blood supply involving cartilage canals. Wnt signaling regulates chondrocyte differentiation/maturation during pre-/post-natal cartilage development. Gene expression profiling of leukocytes has revealed aberrant expression of Wnt/β-catenin pathway in early OC. The objective of this study was to elucidate the expression of molecules associated with Wnt/β-catenin signaling in early OC using an equine model. Our hypothesis was that there would be increased expression of Wnt signaling molecules in chondrocytes adjacent to cartilage canals and the osteochondral junction in early OC lesions compared to normal controls. Patients & Methods. Osteochondral samples were obtained (IACUC-approved) from femoropatellar joints of 15 euthanised immature horses (1–6 months old). Disease status was determined based on histology of osteochondral junctions (7 early OC, 8 normal controls). Osteochondral sections were frozen in OCT for laser capture microdissection (LCM) or fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde and paraffin-embedded for immunohistochemistry. Chondrocytes surrounding cartilage canals and osteochondral junctions were captured using LCM. RNA isolation and reverse transcription were performed. Equine-specific β-catenin, Wnt-4, Wnt-5b, Wnt-11, Dickkopf-1(Dkk-1), Lrp-4 and -6, Axin1, Wnt inhibitory factor(WIF)-1, secreted Frizzled-related protein-1, -3, and -5(Sfrp), retinoic acid receptor-gamma(RARG), RAR-inducible serine carboxypeptidase(SC-PEP) and 18S mRNA expression was evaluated by two-step real-time qPCR. Spatial protein expression was determined by immunohistochemistry using rabbit polyclonal (β-catenin, Wnt-11) or mouse monoclonal (Wnt-4, Dkk1) primary antibodies (confirmed by Western blot). Statistical analysis of early OC vs. normal controls was performed using Wilcoxon rank sum test (p <0.05). Results. Chondrocytes adjacent to cartilage canals had significantly increased gene expression of β-catenin (p=0.026), Wnt-5b (p=0.04), Lrp6 (p=0.026), WIF-1 (p=0.026), Dkk-1 (p=0.015), Axin1 (0.041), and SC-PEP (p=0.026), and decreased expression of Wnt-11 (p=0.04), in OC vs. normal controls. OC chondrocytes along osteochondral junctions had significantly increased gene expression of β-catenin (p=0.004) and SC-PEP (p=0.026), with a trend for increased Wnt-4 (p= 0.06) and Wnt-5b (p=0.06) compared to normal controls. Immunostaining for β-catenin was moderate in deep cartilage layers, including osteochondral junction chondrocytes. Wnt-4 immunostaining was moderate along the osteochondral junction and minimal along cartilage canals. Strong Wnt-11 protein expression was apparent in superficial cartilage layers and vascular cells lining cartilage canals and osteochondral junction. Mild to moderate Dkk1 immunostaining was found along osteochondral junction. Discussion/Conclusion. Wnt/β-catenin signaling regulates cartilage differentiation during development and is important in endochondral ossification. Increased gene expression of β-catenin in OC chondrocytes may affect chondrocyte hypertrophy or induce cartilage degeneration, depending on the stage of cartilage development, as β-catenin has been shown to play a dual role in cartilage growth and degeneration. In cells surrounding cartilage canals, increased gene expression of Lrp6, a co-receptor for Wnt proteins, provides further evidence of upregulation of canonical signaling in OC. However, increased Wnt inhibitor gene expression in OC chondrocytes, including Dkk1, WIF-1, and Axin1, may be an attempt to control activation of the canonical pathway

Summary Statement. Differential expression of canonical and noncanonical Wnt signalling along cartilage canals and osteochondral junctions is dependent on age. Increased gene expression of PTHrP along cartilage canals and Ihh along osteochondral junctions suggests paracrine feedback in articular-epiphyseal cartilage. Introduction. Wnt signaling has been shown to regulate chondrocyte differentiation during pre-/post-natal cartilage development. In addition, parathyroid-related peptide(PTHrP) and Indian hedgehog(Ihh) create a negative feedback loop in growth cartilage, but less is known in articular cartilage. The objective of this study was to elucidate expression of regulatory molecules in chondrocytes surrounding cartilage canals and osteochondral junctions during neonatal and pre-adolescent development. We hypothesised there would be increased expression of canonical Wnt signalling molecules and Ihh in osteochondral junction chondrocytes compared to cartilage canal chondrocytes. In addition, we hypothesised that Wnt signaling and PTHrP expression would be greater in neonates than pre-adolescents. Patients & Methods. Osteochondral samples were obtained(IACUC-approved) from normal femoropatellar joints of 14 euthanised immature horses(6 neonates, 8 pre-adolescents). Samples were frozen in OCT for laser capture microdissection(LCM) or fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde and paraffin-embedded for immunohistochemistry. Chondrocytes surrounding cartilage canals and osteochondral junctions were captured using LCM. Following RNA isolation, equine-specific β-catenin, Wnt-4, Wnt-5b, Wnt-11, Dickkopf-1(Dkk-1), low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein-4,-6(Lrp4, Lrp6), Axin1, Wnt inhibitory factor-1(WIF)-1, secreted Frizzled-related protein-1,-3,-5(sFRP), retinoic acid receptor gamma(RARG), RAR-inducible serine carboxypeptidase(SC-PEP), Ihh, PTHrP, VEGF, PDGF, MMP-13, and 18S mRNA expression levels were evaluated by two-step real-time qPCR. Following immunohistochemistry using rabbit polyclonal or mouse monoclonal primary antibodies (confirmed by Western blot), spatial tissue protein expression was scored (0–3). Statistical analysis included Wilcoxon signed rank test(paired samples) or rank sum test(unpaired samples)(P<0.05). Results. Gene expression in chondrocytes along cartilage canals was significantly higher for PTHrP, β-catenin, Lrp6, Axin1, sFRP5, RARgamma, and SC-PEP than osteochondral junctions. Conversely, gene expression of Ihh, Wnt4, Wnt11, sFRP3, and VEGF were higher in osteochondral junction chondrocytes than cartilage canals. There was higher protein expression of β-catenin, PDGF, VEGF, and MMP-13 along osteochondral junctions than cartilage canals of pre-adolescents. Neonates had higher gene expression of PTHrP, Wnt-5b, sFRP3, Lrp6, and RARG in cartilage canal chondrocytes than pre-adolescents, while Ihh, Wnt-11, Lrp4, and Dkk1 were significantly higher in pre-adolescents. Immunostaining was higher for β-catenin and Wnt-11 in pre-adolescent osteochondral junction cartilage than neonates. No differences were found between age groups for Wnt-4 immunostaining. Dkk1 protein expression was significantly higher in the middle cartilage layer of pre-adolescents than neonates. Immunostaining was greater for Ihh and PTHrP in the deep cartilage layer of pre-adolescents than neonates. PDGF, VEGF, and MMP13 protein expression was higher in the superficial cartilage layer of pre-adolescents than neonates. Discussion. Wnt/β-catenin and Ihh/PTHrP signaling regulate cartilage differentiation during development and are important in endochondral ossification. This study revealed cell-specific, age-related differences in gene/protein expression of both regulatory pathways. Cells surrounding cartilage canals typically appeared small/rounded compared to larger chondrocytes along osteochondral junctions, likely due to different developmental stages. Higher PTHrP gene expression along cartilage canals and Ihh expression along osteochondral junctions may reflect these stages, suggesting paracrine feedback in articular-epiphyseal cartilage. β-catenin signaling may induce chondrocyte hypertrophy, potentially by enhancing Ihh and MMP-13 expression. Differential expression of canonical(β-catenin, Wnt-4, Lrp4, Lrp6) and noncanonical Wnt signalling(Wnt-5b, Wnt-11) and Wnt inhibitors (Dkk1, Axin1, sFRP3, sFRP5, Wif-1) surrounding cartilage canals and osteochondral junctions provides evidence of age-related interactions during postnatal development

Chondrogenic differentiation and cartilage homeostasis requires a high cellular translational capacity to meet the demands for cartilaginous extracellular matrix production. Box C/D and H/ACA snoRNAs guide post-transcriptional 2′-O ribose methylation and pseudouridylation of specific ribosomal RNA (rRNA) nucleotides, respectively. How specific rRNA modifications influence rRNA function is poorly documented, but modifications are thought to tune rRNA folding and interaction with ribosomal proteins, which is critical for ribosome function. We hypothesise that chondrocyte translational capacity is supported by snoRNA-mediated post-transcriptional fine-tuning of rRNAs. ATDC5 progenitor cells were differentiated into the chondrogenic lineage, resembling mature and mineralising chondrocytes after 7 or 14 days, respectively. UBF-1 (rRNA transcription factor), fibrillarin (box C/D methyltransferase) and dyskerin (box H/ACA pseudouridylase) expression displayed highest fold induction at day 5/6 in differentiation. Ribosomal RNA content per cell was increased at day 7, but not at day 14 in differentiation. These data suggest that ribosome biogenesis adapts to the chondrocyte's differentiation status. RNA-Seq of RNA species <200 nt revealed expression of at least 224 individual snoRNAs. Due to initiation of chondrogenic differentiation (Δt0-t7), 21 snoRNAs were differentially expressed (DE; FDRadj-p<0.05, logFC>1or<−1). Mineralization (Δt7-t14) induced DE of 23 snoRNAs. Comparing t0 with t14 resulted in DE of 43 snoRNAs. To anticipate on the biological relevance of DE snoRNAs, their rRNA target nucleotides were plotted in 18S, 5.8S and 28S rRNA secondary structures. This revealed that DE snoRNAs, amongst others, target nucleotide modifications in the 28S peptidyl transferase center and the 18S decoding center (DC). Snora40 was DE, targeting helix 27/18S rRNA. Helix 27 controls DC function. Helix 68 of 28S rRNA is part of the ribosome's E-site, therefore, DE snord36c and snora31 (targeting helix 68) could potentially fine-tune the translation mechanism. As a final example we found snord46 to be DE (target: helix 69/28S rRNA). Mutations in helix 69 have been shown to severely affect cell viability. Our data show that increased demand for translational capacity during chondrogenic differentiation is associated with differential expression of snoRNAs, potentially controlling ribosome fidelity via site-specific rRNA-modifications. These data enable us to determine the role of individual snoRNAs in tuning the chondrocyte's translational properties and current efforts focus on confirming site-specific rRNA-modifications and determine their biological relevance

Heterotopic ossi?cation is the abnormal formation of bone in soft tissues and is a frequent complication of hip replacement surgery. Heterotopic ossi?cations are described to develop via endochondral ossification and standard treatment is administration of indomethacin. It is currently unknown how indomethacin influences heterotopic ossi?cation on a molecular level, therefore we aimed to determine whether indomethacin might influence heterotopic ossi?cation via impairing the chondrogenic phase of endochondral ossification. ATDC5, human bone marrow stem cells (hBMSCs) and rabbit periosteal agarose cultures were employed as progenitor cell models; SW1353, human articular chondrocytes and differentiated ATDC5 cells were used as matured chondrocyte cell models. All cells were cultured in the presence of (increasing) concentrations of indomethacin. The action of indomethacin was confirmed by decreased PGE2 levels in all experiments, and was determined by specific PGE2 ELISA. Gene- and protein expression analyses were employed to determine chondrogenic outcome. Progenitor cell models differentiating in the chondrogenic lineage (ATDC5, primary human bone marrow stem cells and ex vivo periosteal agarose cultures) were treated with increasing concentrations of indomethacin and a dose-dependent decrease in gene- and protein expression of chondrogenic and hypertrophic markers as well as decreased glycosaminoglycan content was observed. Even when hypertrophic differentiation was provoked the addition of indomethacin resulted in decreased hypertrophic marker expression. Interestingly, when mature chondrocytes were treated with indomethacin, a clear increase in collagen type 2 expression was observed. Similarly, when ATDC5 cells and bone marrow stem cells were pre-differentiated to obtain a chondrocyte phenotype and indomethacin was added from this time point onwards, low concentrations of indomethacin also resulted in increased chondrogenic differentiation. Indomethacin induces differential effects on in vitro endochondral ossification, depending on the chondrocyte's differentiation stage, with complete inhibition of chondrogenic differentiation as the most pronounced action. This observation may provide a rationale behind the elusive mode of action of indomethacin in the treatment of heterotopic ossifications

Introduction: Fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 (FGFR3) is a tyrosine kinase membrane-spanning protein whose function is to regulate chondrocyte proliferation, differentiation and matrix production during cartilage development. Several mutations in FGFR3 have now been documented to link to human diseases. A number of these mutations result in constitutive activation of the FGFR3, leading to proliferation and premature differentiation of chondrocytes. Depending on the mutation and the resultant level of FGFR3 activation, mild to severe skeletal dysplasias such as achondroplasia (ACH), hypochondroplasia (HCH), thanatophoric dysplasia type I (TDI) and type II (TDII), and severe achondroplasia with developmental delay and acanthosis nigrans (SADDAN) may result. It has been postulated that the signalling pathways downstream of FGFR3 may be responsible for activating transcription factors, leading to up-regulation of cell cycle inhibitors and causing abnormal suppression of chondrocyte cell proliferation. However, the precise signalling pathways involved in FGFR3 mutation have as yet to be elucidated. The aim of this study was to investigate and compare the differences in the downstream signalling pathways between FGFR3 mutants. Methods and Results: Wild type FGFR3 has been cloned into expression vector pcDNA3 and the construct has been used to generate four different FGFR3 mutants using site-directed mutagenesis. The mutations which have been introduced and the types of dysplasia they correspond to were as follows: K380R (ACH), N540K (HCH) and K650E (TDII). A kinase dead form of the receptor, K504R has also been generated. Wild type and each of the four mutant FGFR3 proteins in pcDNA3 vector have been successfully transfected into 293T cells using the calcium phosphate method. Immunoprecipitation and Western Blot analysis of cell lysates revealed expression of wild type protein in three isoforms of size 135kDa (mature), 120kDa (intermediate) and 98kDa (immature). The mutant proteins all followed a similar pattern of expression with the exception of the TDII mutant that did not express the mature form of the FGFR3. Changes in MAPK, PLCã and STAT 1 signalling pathways in response to FGFs-1, 2, 9 and 18 in the 293-cells of wild type and mutant forms of FGFR3 are now under investigation, in an attempt to define which pathways are mostly responsible for the resultant abnormal phenotypes. Discussion: Genomics studies have demonstrated that FGFR3 expression is significantly upregulated during the osteoblastic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) under BMP-2 stimulation in vitro. Subsequent functional studies have demonstrated that a selective ligand for FGFR3, FGF9, is able to induce tyrosine kinase signalling, and the osteoblastic differentiation of MSCs in vitro. Further understanding the signalling mechanisms of FGFR3 activation in normal and mutant forms may lead to discover potential anabolic agents that are based on FGFR3-FGFs pathways