Aims. Despite the expansion of arthroscopic surgery of the shoulder, the open deltopectoral approach is increasingly used for the fixation of fractures and arthroplasty of the shoulder. The anatomy of the terminal branches of the posterior circumflex humeral artery (PCHA) has not been described before. We undertook an investigation to correct this omission. Patients and Methods. The vascular anatomy encountered during 100 consecutive elective deltopectoral approaches was recorded, and the common variants of the terminal branches of the PCHA are described. Results. In total, 92 patients (92%) had a terminal branch that crossed the space between the deltoid and the proximal humerus and which was therefore vulnerable to tearing or avulsion during the insertion of the blade of a retractor during the deltopectoral approach to the shoulder. In 75 patients (75%) there was a single vessel, in 16 (16%) a double vessel and in one a triple vessel. Conclusion. The relationship of these vessels to the landmark of the tendon of the insertion of pectoralis major into the proximal humerus is described. Damage to these previously undocumented branches can cause persistent bleeding leading to prolonged surgery and post-operative haematoma and infection, as well as poor visualisation during the procedure. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2016;98-B:1395–8

The piriformis muscle is an important landmark in the surgical anatomy of the hip, particularly the posterior approach for total hip replacement (THR). Standard orthopaedic teaching dictates that the tendon must be cut in to allow adequate access to the superior part of the acetabulum and the femoral medullary canal. However, in our experience a routine THR can be performed through a posterior approach without sacrificing this tendon. We dissected the proximal femora of 15 cadavers in order to clarify the morphological anatomy of the piriformis tendon. We confirmed that the tendon attaches on the crest of the greater trochanter, in a position superior to the trochanteric fossa, away from the entry point for broaching the intramedullary canal during THR. The tendon attachment site encompassed the summit and medial aspect of the greater trochanter as well as a variable attachment to the fibrous capsule of the hip joint. In addition we dissected seven cadavers resecting all posterior attachments except the piriformis muscle and tendon in order to study their relations to the hip joint, as the joint was flexed. At flexion of 90° the piriformis muscle lay directly posterior to the hip joint. The piriform fossa is a term used by orthopaedic surgeons to refer the trochanteric fossa and normally has no relation to the attachment site of the piriformis tendon. In hip flexion the piriformis lies directly behind the hip joint and might reasonably be considered to contribute to the stability of the joint. We conclude that the anatomy of the piriformis muscle is often inaccurately described in the current surgical literature and terms are used and interchanged inappropriately. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:764–9

Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction is commonly performed and has been for many years. Despite this, the technical details related to ACL anatomy, such as tunnel placement, are still a topic for debate. In this paper, we introduce the flat ribbon concept of the anatomy of the ACL, and its relevance to clinical practice. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2016;98-B:1020–6

The COVID-19 pandemic necessitated a pivot to online learning for many traditional, hands-on subjects such as anatomy. This, coupled with the increase in online education programmes, and the reduction of time students spend in anatomy dissection rooms, has highlighted a real need for innovative and accessible learning tools. This study describes the development of a novel 3-dimensional (3D), interactive anatomy teaching tool using structured light scanning (SLS) technology. This technique allows the 3D shape and texture of an object to be captured and displayed online, where it can be viewed and manipulated in real-time. Human bones of the upper limb, vertebrae and whole skulls were digitised using SLS using Einscan Pro2X/H scanners. The resulting meshes were then post-processed to add the captured textures and to remove any extraneous information. The final models were uploaded into Sketchfab where they were orientated, lit and annotated. To gather opinion on these models as effective teaching tools, surveys were completed by anatomy students (n=35) and anatomy educators (n=8). Data was collected using a Likert scale response, as well as free text answers to gather qualitative information. 3D scans of the scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, vertebrae and skull were successfully produced by SLS. Interactive models were produced via scan data in Sketchfab and successfully annotated to provide labelled 3D models for examination. 94% of survey respondents agreed that the interactive models were easy to use (n=35, 31% agree and 63% strongly agree) and 97% agreed that the 3D interactive models were more useful than 2D images for learning bony anatomy (n=35; 26% agree and 71% strongly agree). This initial study has demonstrated a suitable proof-of-concept for SLS technology as a useful technique for producing 3D interactive online tools for learning and teaching bony anatomy. Current studies are focussed on determining the SLS accuracy and the ability of SLS to capture soft tissue/joints. We believe that this tool will be a useful technique for generating online 3D interactive models to study orthopaedic anatomy

Novel immersive virtual reality (IVR) technologies are revolutionizing medical education. Virtual anatomy education using head-mounted displays allows users to interact with virtual anatomical objects, move within the virtual rooms, and interact with other virtual users. While IVR has been shown to be more effective than textbook learning and 3D computer models presented in 2D screens, the effectiveness of IVR compared to cadaveric models in anatomy education is currently unknown. In this study, we aim to compare the effectiveness of IVR with direct cadaveric bone models in teaching upper and lower limb anatomy for first-year medical students. A randomized, double-blind crossover non-inferiority trial was conducted. Participants were first-year medical students from a single University. Exclusion criteria included students who undertook prior undergraduate or graduate degrees in anatomy. In the first stage of the study, students were randomized in a 1:1 ratio to IVR or cadaveric bone groups studying upper limb skeletal anatomy. All students were then crossed over and used cadaveric bone or IVR to study lower limb skeletal anatomy. All students in both groups completed a pre-and post-intervention knowledge test. The educational content was based on the University of Toronto Medical Anatomy Curriculum. The Oculus Quest 2 Headsets (Meta Technologies) and PrecisionOS Anatomy application (PrecisionOS Technology) were utilized for the virtual reality component. The primary endpoint of the study was student performance on the pre-and post-intervention knowledge tests. We hypothesized that student performance in the IVR groups would be comparable to the cadaveric bone group. 50 first-year medical students met inclusion criteria and were computer randomized (1:1 ratio) to IVR and cadaveric bone group for upper limb skeletal anatomy education. Forty-six students attended the study, 21 completed the upper limb modules, and 19 completed the lower limb modules. Among all students, average score on the pre-intervention knowledge test was 14.6% (Standard Deviation (SD)=18.2%) and 25.0% (SD=17%) for upper and lower limbs, respectively. Percentage increase in students’ scores between pre-and post-intervention knowledge test, in the upper limb for IVR, was 15 % and 16.7% for cadaveric bones (p = 0. 2861), and for the lower limb score increase was 22.6% in the IVR and 22.5% in the cadaveric bone group (p = 0.9356). In this non-inferiority crossover randomized controlled trial, we found no significant difference between student performance in knowledge tests after using IVR or cadaveric bones. Immersive virtual reality and cadaveric bones were equally effective in skeletal anatomy education. Going forward, with advances in VR technologies and anatomy applications, we can expect to see further improvements in the effectiveness of these technologies in anatomy and surgical education. These findings have implications for medical schools having challenges in acquiring cadavers and cadaveric parts

Novel immersive virtual reality (IVR) technologies are revolutionizing medical education. Virtual anatomy education using head-mounted displays allows users to interact with virtual anatomical objects, move within the virtual rooms, and interact with other virtual users. While IVR has been shown to be more effective than textbook learning and 3D computer models presented in 2D screens, the effectiveness of IVR compared to cadaveric models in anatomy education is currently unknown. In this study, we aim to compare the effectiveness of IVR with direct cadaveric bone models in teaching upper and lower limb anatomy for first-year medical students. A randomized, double-blind crossover non-inferiority trial was conducted. Participants were first-year medical students from a single University. Exclusion criteria included students who undertook prior undergraduate or graduate degrees in anatomy. In the first stage of the study, students were randomized in a 1:1 ratio to IVR or cadaveric bone groups studying upper limb skeletal anatomy. All students were then crossed over and used cadaveric bone or IVR to study lower limb skeletal anatomy. All students in both groups completed a pre-and post-intervention knowledge test. The educational content was based on the University of Toronto Medical Anatomy Curriculum. The Oculus Quest 2 Headsets (Meta Technologies) and PrecisionOS Anatomy application (PrecisionOS Technology) were utilized for the virtual reality component. The primary endpoint of the study was student performance on the pre-and post-intervention knowledge tests. We hypothesized that student performance in the IVR groups would be comparable to the cadaveric bone group. 50 first-year medical students met inclusion criteria and were computer randomized (1:1 ratio) to IVR and cadaveric bone group for upper limb skeletal anatomy education. Forty-six students attended the study, 21 completed the upper limb modules, and 19 completed the lower limb modules. Among all students, average score on the pre-intervention knowledge test was 14.6% (Standard Deviation (SD)=18.2%) and 25.0% (SD=17%) for upper and lower limbs, respectively. Percentage increase in students’ scores between pre-and post-intervention knowledge test, in the upper limb for IVR, was 15 % and 16.7% for cadaveric bones (p = 0. 2861), and for the lower limb score increase was 22.6% in the IVR and 22.5% in the cadaveric bone group (p = 0.9356). In this non-inferiority crossover randomized controlled trial, we found no significant difference between student performance in knowledge tests after using IVR or cadaveric bones. Immersive virtual reality and cadaveric bones were equally effective in skeletal anatomy education. Going forward, with advances in VR technologies and anatomy applications, we can expect to see further improvements in the effectiveness of these technologies in anatomy and surgical education. These findings have implications for medical schools having challenges in acquiring cadavers and cadaveric parts

Introduction. Tibial nerve anatomy has not been studied profoundly in comparison to Tarsal Tunnel Syndrome (TTS). Assuming symptoms are caused by an anatomical variant or mechanical cause regarding the tibial nerve, it is essential to investigate the anatomy of this structure taking in consideration that surgical and conservative treatments have shown poor results. Methods. 40 lower-leg specimens were obtained. Dissection started 20 centimeters proximal to the Dellon-McKinnon (DM) line towards the medial aspect of the naviculo-cuneiform joint distally. Anteriorly, dissection began at the tibio-talar medial gutter until the medial aspect of the Achilles tendon posteriorly. The plantar aspect extended from medial to lateral within the parameters previously described, ending at the level of the second metatarsal. Results. The flexor retinaculum had a denser consistency in 22.5% of the cases and the average length was 51.9 mm. The flexor retinaculum as an independent structure was found absent and 77.2% of cases as undistinguished extension of the crural fascia. The lateral plantar nerver (LPN) and abductor digiti minimi (ADM) nerve shared same origin in 80% of cases, 34.5% bifurcated proximal to the DM line, 31.2% distally and 34.3% at the same level. The medial calcaneal nerve (MCN) emerged proximal to the DM line in 100% of specimens. The medial plantar nerve (MPN) has its origin proximal to the DM line in 95% of cases. Conclusion. The flexor retinaculum is an extension of the crural fascia and not an independent structure. The LPN and ADM have the same origin in most cases and this presents as an important finding that must be studied in detail for clinical correlations between the motor and sensatory affections of the ADM and LPN respectively. Finally, the branches of the MCN and MPN are the most constant in their distribution and proximal origin in relation to the Dellon-McKinnon line

Aims. The aim of this study was to compare robotic arm-assisted bi-unicompartmental knee arthroplasty (bi-UKA) with conventional mechanically aligned total knee arthroplasty (TKA) in order to determine the changes in the anatomy of the knee and alignment of the lower limb following surgery. Methods. An analysis of 38 patients who underwent TKA and 32 who underwent bi-UKA was performed as a secondary study from a prospective, single-centre, randomized controlled trial. CT imaging was used to measure coronal, sagittal, and axial alignment of the knee preoperatively and at three months postoperatively to determine changes in anatomy that had occurred as a result of the surgery. The hip-knee-ankle angle (HKAA) was also measured to identify any differences between the two groups. Results. The pre- to postoperative changes in joint anatomy were significantly less in patients undergoing bi-UKA in all three planes in both the femur and tibia, except for femoral sagittal component orientation in which there was no difference. Overall, for the six parameters of alignment (three femoral and three tibial), 47% of bi-UKAs and 24% TKAs had a change of < 2° (p = 0.045). The change in HKAA towards neutral in varus and valgus knees was significantly less in patients undergoing bi-UKA compared with those undergoing TKA (p < 0.001). Alignment was neutral in those undergoing TKA (mean 179.5° (SD 3.2°)) while those undergoing bi-UKA had mild residual varus or valgus alignment (mean 177.8° (SD 3.4°)) (p < 0.001). Conclusion. Robotic-assisted, cruciate-sparing bi-UKA maintains the natural anatomy of the knee in the coronal, sagittal, and axial planes better, and may therefore preserve normal joint kinematics, compared with a mechanically aligned TKA. This includes preservation of coronal joint line obliquity. HKAA alignment was corrected towards neutral significantly less in patients undergoing bi-UKA, which may represent restoration of the pre-disease constitutional alignment (p < 0.001). Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2020;102-B(11):1511–1518

Diagnostic interpretation error of paediatric musculoskeletal (MSK) radiographs can lead to late presentation of injuries that subsequently require more invasive surgical interventions with increased risks of morbidity. We aimed to determine the radiograph factors that resulted in diagnostic interpretation challenges for emergency physicians reviewing pediatric MSK radiographs. Emergency physicians provided diagnostic interpretations on 1,850 pediatric MSK radiographs via their participation in a web-based education platform. From this data, we derived interpretation difficulty scores for each radiograph using item response theory. We classified each radiograph by body region, diagnosis (fracture/dislocation absent or present), and, where applicable, the specific fracture location(s) and morphology(ies). We compared the interpretation difficulty scores by diagnosis, fracture location, and morphology. An expert panel reviewed the 65 most commonly misdiagnosed radiographs without a fracture/dislocation to identify normal imaging findings that were commonly mistaken for fractures. We included data from 244 emergency physicians, which resulted in 185,653 unique radiograph interpretations, 42,689 (23.0%) of which were diagnostic errors. For humerus, elbow, forearm, wrist, femur, knee, tibia-fibula radiographs, those without a fracture had higher interpretation difficulty scores relative to those with a fracture; the opposite was true for the hand, pelvis, foot, and ankle radiographs (p < 0 .004 for all comparisons). The descriptive review demonstrated that specific normal anatomy, overlapping bones, and external artefact from muscle or skin folds were often mistaken for fractures. There was a significant difference in difficulty score by anatomic locations of the fracture in the elbow, pelvis, and ankle (p < 0 .004 for all comparisons). Ankle and elbow growth plate, fibular avulsion, and humerus condylar were more difficult to diagnose than other fracture patterns (p < 0 .004 for all comparisons). We identified actionable learning opportunities in paediatric MSK radiograph interpretation for emergency physicians. We will use this information to design targeted education to referring emergency physicians and their trainees with an aim to decrease delayed and missed paediatric MSK injuries

Diagnostic interpretation error of paediatric musculoskeletal (MSK) radiographs can lead to late presentation of injuries that subsequently require more invasive surgical interventions with increased risks of morbidity. We aimed to determine the radiograph factors that resulted in diagnostic interpretation challenges for emergency physicians reviewing pediatric MSK radiographs. Emergency physicians provided diagnostic interpretations on 1,850 pediatric MSK radiographs via their participation in a web-based education platform. From this data, we derived interpretation difficulty scores for each radiograph using item response theory. We classified each radiograph by body region, diagnosis (fracture/dislocation absent or present), and, where applicable, the specific fracture location(s) and morphology(ies). We compared the interpretation difficulty scores by diagnosis, fracture location, and morphology. An expert panel reviewed the 65 most commonly misdiagnosed radiographs without a fracture/dislocation to identify normal imaging findings that were commonly mistaken for fractures. We included data from 244 emergency physicians, which resulted in 185,653 unique radiograph interpretations, 42,689 (23.0%) of which were diagnostic errors. For humerus, elbow, forearm, wrist, femur, knee, tibia-fibula radiographs, those without a fracture had higher interpretation difficulty scores relative to those with a fracture; the opposite was true for the hand, pelvis, foot, and ankle radiographs (p < 0 .004 for all comparisons). The descriptive review demonstrated that specific normal anatomy, overlapping bones, and external artefact from muscle or skin folds were often mistaken for fractures. There was a significant difference in difficulty score by anatomic locations of the fracture in the elbow, pelvis, and ankle (p < 0 .004 for all comparisons). Ankle and elbow growth plate, fibular avulsion, and humerus condylar were more difficult to diagnose than other fracture patterns (p < 0 .004 for all comparisons). We identified actionable learning opportunities in paediatric MSK radiograph interpretation for emergency physicians. We will use this information to design targeted education to referring emergency physicians and their trainees with an aim to decrease delayed and missed paediatric MSK injuries

Introduction. The treatment of posterior malleolar fractures is developing. Mason and Molloy (Foot Ankle Int. 2017 Nov;38(11):1229-1235) identified only 49% of posterior malleolar rotational pilon type fractures had syndesmotic instabilities. This was against general thinking that fixation of such a fragment would stabilize the syndesmosis. Methods. We examined 10 cadaveric lower limbs that had been preserved for dissection at the Human Anatomy and Resource Centre at Liverpool University in a solution of formaldehyde. The lower limbs were carefully dissected to identify the ligamentous structures on the posterior aspect of the ankle. To compare the size to the rotational pilon posterior malleolar fracture (Mason and Molloy 2A and B) we gathered information from our posterior malleolar fracture database. 3D CT imaging was analysed using our department PACS system. Results. The PITFL insertion on the posterior aspect of the tibia is very large. The average size of insertion was 54.9×47.1mm across the posterior aspect of the tibia. Medially the PITFL blends into the sheath of tibialis posterior and laterally into the peroneal tendon sheath. 78 posterior lateral and 35 posterior medial fragments were measured. On average, the lateral to medial size of the posteromalleolar fragment was 24.5mm in the posterolateral fragment, and 43mm if there is a posteromedial fragment present also. The average distal to proximal size of the posterolateral fragment was 24.5mm and 18.5mm for the posteromedial fragment. Conclusion. The PITFL insertion on the tibia is broad. In comparison to the average size of the posterior malleolar fragments, the PITFL insertion is significantly bigger. Therefore, for a posterior malleolar fracture to cause posterior syndesmotic instability, a ligamentous injury will also have to occur. This explains the finding by Mason and Molloy that only 49% of type 2 injuries had a syndesmotic injury on testing

Introduction. The constitutional knee anatomy in the coronal plane includes the distal femoral joint line obliquity (DFJLO) which in most patients is in slight valgus positioning. Despite this native anatomy, the mechanical positioning of the femoral component during primary total knee arthroplasty (TKA) often ignores the native DFJLO opting to place the femur in a set degree of valgus that varies upon the practitioner's practice and experience. Unfortunately, this technique is likely to generate high rate of distal lateral femoral overstuffing. This anatomical mismatch might be a cause of anterior knee pain and therefore partly explain the adverse functional outcomes of mechanically aligned (MA) TKA. Our study aims at assessing the relationship between constitutional knee anatomy and clinical outcomes of MA TKA. We hypothesized that a negative relationship would be found between the constitutional frontal knee deformity, the distal femoral joint line obliquity, and functional outcomes of MA TKA with a special emphasize on patellofemoral (PF) specific outcomes. Methods. One hundred and thirteen patients underwent MA TKA (posterior-stabilized design) for primary end-stage knee osteoarthritis. They were prospectively followed for one year using the New KSS 2011 and HSS Patella score. Residual anterior knee pain was also assessed. Knee phenotypes using anatomical parameters (such as HKA, HKS, DFJLO and LDFA (Lateral distal femoral angle)) were measured from preoperative and postoperative lower-limb EOS® images (Biospace, Paris, France). We assessed the relationship between the knee anatomical parameters and the functional outcome scores at 1 year postoperatively. Results. We investigated four groups according to the preoperative obliquity of the distal femur and HKA. The group with high DFJLO and varus knee deformity demonstrated lower HSS scores (drop>10%, p=0.03) and higher rate of anterior knee pain (p=0.03). Higher postoperative variation of LDFA was associated with lower HSS scores (r = −0.2367, p=0.03) and with higher preoperative DFJLO (p=0.0001) due to the MA technique. Knee phenotypes with LDFA<87° presented higher risk of variation of LDFA. No correlation was found using New KSS 2011 outcomes at one-year follow-up. Discussion/Conclusion. Disregard of the constitutional knee anatomy (LDFA and DFJLO) when performing a MA TKA may generate a non-physiologic knee kinematics that impact patellofemoral outcomes and resulting in residual anterior knee pain. While these results are restricted to modern posterior-stabilized TKA design, recent in silico and in vitro studies supported the negative effect of the lateral overstuffing of the femoral component in the coronal plane during knee flexion. This study provides further evidence that suggest patient-specific anatomical considerations are needed to optimize component position and subsequent outcomes following primary TKA. Additional studies are needed to integrate the rotational status of the femoral component in this analysis. For any figures or tables, please contact authors directly

Introduction. Variation in resection thickness of the femur in Total Knee Arthroplasty (TKA) impacts the flexion and extension tightness of the knee. Less well investigated is how variation in patient anatomy drives flexion or extension tightness pre- and post- operatively. Extension and flexion stability of the post TKA knee is a function of the tension in the ligaments which is proportional to the strain. This study sought to investigate how femoral ligament offset relates to post-operative navigation kinematics and how outcomes are affected by component position in relation to ligament attachment sites. Method. A database of TKA patients operated on by two surgeons from 1-Jan-2014 who had a pre-operative CT scan were assessed. Bone density of the CT scan was used to determine the medial and lateral collateral attachments. Navigation (OmniNav, Raynham, MA) was used in all surgeries, laxity data from the navigation unit was paired to the CT scan. 12-month postoperative Knee Osteoarthritis and Outcome Score (KOOS) score and a postoperative CT scan were taken. Preoperative segmented bones and implants were registered to the postoperative scan to determine change in anatomy. Epicondylar offsets from the distal and posterior condyles (of the native knee and implanted components), resections, maximal flexion and extension of the knee and coronal plane laxity were assessed. Relationships between these measurements were determined. Surgical technique was a mix of mechanical gap balancing and kinematically aligned knees using Omni (Raynham, MA) Apex implants. Results. 119 patients were identified in the database. 60% (71) were female and the average age was 69.0 years (+/− 8.1). The average distal femoral bone resection was 7.5 mm (+/− 1.6) medially and 5.4 mm (+/− 2.1) laterally, and posterior 10.2 mm (+/− 1.7) medially and 8.4 mm (+/− 1.8) laterally, with implant replacement thicknesses 9 mm distally and 11 mm posterior. Maximum flexion of the knee post implantation was 121.5° (+/− 8.1) from a preoperative value of 117.9° (+/− 9.5). Change in the collateral ligament offsets brought on by surgery had significant correlations with several laxity and flexion measures. Increase in the posterior offset of the medial collateral attachment brought on by surgery was shown to decrease the maximum flexion attained (coefficient = −0.53, p < 0.001), Figure 1. Increased distal medial offset post-operatively compared to the posterior offset is significantly correlated with improved KOOS pain outcomes (coefficient = 0.23, p = 0.01). Similarly, a decrease in the distal offset of the lateral collateral ligament increased the coronal plane laxity in extension (coefficient = 0.37, p < 0.001), while the posterior lateral resection was observed to correlate with postoperative coronal laxity in flexion (coefficient = 0.42, p < 0.001). Conclusions. Accounting for variation in ligament offset during surgically planning may improve balancing outcomes. Although new alignment approaches, such as kinematic alignment, have been able to demonstrate improvements in short term outcomes, elimination of postoperative dissatisfaction has not been achieved. The interaction of an alignment strategy with a given patient's specific anatomy may be the key to unlocking further TKA patient outcome gains

Primary total hip replacement (THR) in patients with abnormal/altered proximal femoral anatomy/narrow canals presents a technical challenge. There are only limited standard prosthetic stems available to deal with narrow canals or abnormal morphology. Many prefer to use expensive custom implants which often have a lag time to manufacture and do not always have long term published outcomes. We present results of the Asian C-stem (which is a standard implant available on the shelf) used in patients predominantly of Caucasian origin with abnormal proximal femoral anatomy. We retrospectively reviewed clinic-radiological results of 131 patients (131 stems) who underwent primary THR using Asian C-stem at Wrightington Hospital till their latest follow up. Revision for any reason was considered as primary end point. Mean age at surgery was 50.8 years (16 – 80). The 2 commonest indications were primary osteoarthritis (66 patients) and hip dysplasia (54 patients). Mean follow up was 43.5 months with a minimum follow up of 12 months and maximum follow up of 97 months. There were 2 recurrent dislocations and 1 hip subluxed twice. One dislocation needed revision surgery. 1 patient underwent acetabular revision for loosening. There was no stem failure, obvious loosening or loss of fixation in any patients in our series with regards to the Asian C-stem. There were no infections and intra-operative perforations or fractures. C-stem Asian is a reliable implant for patients undergoing THR with abnormal proximal femoral anatomy or narrow canals. Long term follow up is essential

Degeneration of the intervertebral disc (IVD), and subsequent low back pain, is an almost inevitable cause of disability. The underlying mechanisms are complex and current therapeutic strategies mainly focus on symptomatic relief rather than on the intrinsic regeneration of the IVD. This talk will provide an overview of special anatomical features and the composition of the IVD as well as its cellular microenvironment. Selected promising conceptional regenerative approaches will be discussed.

Introduction. The equine SDFT tendon is a complex hierarchal structure that transmits force from muscle to bone and stores energy through its stretching and recoiling action. It is a common site of pathology in athletic horses. Our aim was to describe the ultrastructural anatomy of the SDFT as part of a larger programme to understand the structure-functional relationship of this tendon. Materials and Methods. Fifteen SDFT from different aged horses, sectioned transversely (2–3 mm thickness) and then photographed using Canon EOS 5D Mark III (100 mm focal length). Images processed through ImageJ and IMOD software for 3D reconstruction. Samples were also taken from the proximal, middle and distal part of the SDFT from a foetal, one and nine years old horse, processed for H&E staining and sectioned longitudinally in series into 20 sections (5µm), additionally the mid metacarpal region of one year old was fully sectioned into 250 sections. The entire cut surface on the slide was imaged and transformed to one collated image using Inkscape. Using IMOD collated photos transformed to mrc file (Z-stack) and in order to reconstruct 3D forms. Results. A tertiary fascicle was defined as a bundle of collagen fibres surrounded by a well-defined interfascicular matrix IFM (width 34.56 µm +/− 16.43 (St.Dev)). Secondary fascicles were defined as subdivisions of the tertiary fascicles (IFM width 11.1 µm +/− 4.01 (St.Dev)) (n=2). Using this classification we found that the numbers of the secondary and tertiary fascicles were not continuous through the tendon in a proximal to distal regions of the tendon. The histological 3D anatomy manifests similar fascicular structure in all ages, but their fascicular contours were less irregular in aged and in the mid-metacarpal region. The 3D anatomy of the mid-metacarpal tendon demonstrated heterogeneous fascicles, which had helical arrangement in their longitudinal axis. Discussion. Secondary and tertiary fascicles are heterogeneous in numbers, shapes and interconnections with each other in different regions. Fascicles appear to branch from proximal to distal through the tendon and are not always continuous through the tendon length. Some fascicles intercommunicating with each other and have helical configuration. Understanding the 3D anatomy will facilitate understanding of tendon structure-function relationships and injury predisposition

There is an increasing acceptance that the clinical outcomes following posterior malleolar fractures are less than satisfactory. Current ankle classification systems do not account for differences in fracture patterns or injury mechanisms, and as such, the clinical outcomes of these fractures are difficult to interpret. The aim of this study was to analyse our posterior malleolar fractures to better understand the anatomy of the fracture. In a series of 42 consecutive posterior malleolar, who all underwent CT imaging, we have described anatomically different fracture patterns dictated by the direction of the force and dependent on talus loading. We found 3 separate categories. Type 1 – a rotational injury in an unloaded talus resulted in an extraarticular posterior avulsion of the posterior ligaments. This occurred in 10 patients and was most commonly associated with either a high fibular spiral fracture or a low fibular fracture with Wagstaffe fragment avulsion. The syndesmosis was usually disrupted in these patients. Type 2 – a rotational injury in a loaded talus resulting in a posterolateral articular fracture, of the posterior incisura. This occurred in 16 patients and was most commonly associated with a posterior syndesmosis injury, low fibular spiral fracture and an anterior collicular fracture of the medial malleolus. Type 3 – axially loaded talus in plantarflexion causing a posterior pilon. This occurred in 16 patients and was most commonly associated with a long oblique fracture of the fibular and a Y shape fracture of the medial malleolus. The syndesmosis was usually intact in these patients. In conclusion, the anatomy of the posterior malleolar should not be underestimated and requires careful consideration during treatment and categorisation in outcome studies to prevent misinterpretation

Purpose. Clavicular anatomy is variable and this has implications when osteosynthesis is undertaken especially while using the newer generation pre-contoured anatomical plates. This study aimed to examine the anatomy of the clavicle and its variations. Methods. One hundred and forty three clavicles of unknown origin were analysed. Photographs were taken of each clavicle. A scale and electronic callipers were used to determine specific dimensions from six predefined areas of the bone. The length, diameters of the acromial and sternal heads, the diameter of the mid-clavicular segment and depths of both the medial and lateral curvatures were obtained. Results. Clavicles studied ranged from 18.34 centimetres to 10.93 centimetres in length, with the mean length being 14.97 centimetres thus, demonstrating 7.41±1.38 centimetres variability in length between extremes of the clavicles measured. In general, left clavicles were found to be longer than right clavicles. Mid-clavicular segments showed a greater diameter on the left than right, with 1.07±0.17 centimetres difference between the extremes of diameters. The mean diameter of the sternal and acromial heads showed little variation at 2.36±0.38 centimetres and 2.54±0.47 centimetres respectively. Medial curvatures were found to be deeper than lateral curves (1.87±0.36 centimetres vs. 1.28±0.46 centimetres), although the lateral curves showed more bone to bone variation. Conclusion. The results of this study define the dimensions of the clavicle and illustrate the wide variations in its anatomy. This variability shown in large group of cadaveric specimens would be immensely helpful to consider while designing the pre-contoured anatomical plates. In addition, surgeons should note these variations in the clavicular anatomy while undertaking osteosynthesis as these variations have the potential of causing a mismatch between the newer pre-contoured plates and the fractured clavicle fixation

Aims. Restoring the pre-morbid anatomy of the proximal humerus is a goal of anatomical shoulder arthroplasty, but reliance is placed on the surgeon’s experience and on anatomical estimations. The purpose of this study was to present a novel method, ‘Statistical Shape Modelling’, which accurately predicts the pre-morbid proximal humeral anatomy and calculates the 3D geometric parameters needed to restore normal anatomy in patients with severe degenerative osteoarthritis or a fracture of the proximal humerus. Materials and Methods. From a database of 57 humeral CT scans 3D humeral reconstructions were manually created. The reconstructions were used to construct a statistical shape model (SSM), which was then tested on a second set of 52 scans. For each humerus in the second set, 3D reconstructions of four diaphyseal segments of varying lengths were created. These reconstructions were chosen to mimic severe osteoarthritis, a fracture of the surgical neck of the humerus and a proximal humeral fracture with diaphyseal extension. The SSM was then applied to the diaphyseal segments to see how well it predicted proximal morphology, using the actual proximal humeral morphology for comparison. Results. With the metaphysis included, mimicking osteoarthritis, the errors of prediction for retroversion, inclination, height, radius of curvature and posterior and medial offset of the head of the humerus were 2.9° (± 2.3°), 4.0° (± 3.3°), 1.0 mm (± 0.8 mm), 0.8 mm (± 0.6 mm), 0.7 mm (± 0.5 mm) and 1.0 mm (± 0.7 mm), respectively. With the metaphysis excluded, mimicking a fracture of the surgical neck, the errors of prediction for retroversion, inclination, height, radius of curvature and posterior and medial offset of the head of the humerus were 3.8° (± 2.9°), 3.9° (± 3.4°), 2.4 mm (± 1.9 mm), 1.3 mm (± 0.9 mm), 0.8 mm (± 0.5 mm) and 0.9 mm (± 0.6 mm), respectively. Conclusion. This study reports a novel, computerised method that accurately predicts the pre-morbid proximal humeral anatomy even in challenging situations. This information can be used in the surgical planning and operative reconstruction of patients with severe degenerative osteoarthritis or with a fracture of the proximal humerus. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2017;99-B:927–33

The inferior gluteal artery is described in standard anatomy textbooks as contributing to the blood supply of the hip through an anastomosis with the medial femoral circumflex artery. The site(s) of the anastomosis has not been described previously. We undertook an injection study to define the anastomotic connections between these two arteries and to determine whether the inferior gluteal artery could supply the lateral epiphyseal arteries alone. From eight fresh-frozen cadaver pelvic specimens we were able to inject the vessels in 14 hips with latex moulding compound through either the medial femoral circumflex artery or the inferior gluteal artery. Injected vessels around the hip were then carefully exposed and documented photographically. In seven of the eight specimens a clear anastomosis was shown between the two arteries adjacent to the tendon of obturator externus. The terminal vessel arising from this anastomosis was noted to pass directly beneath the posterior capsule of the hip before ascending the superior aspect of the femoral neck and terminating in the lateral epiphyseal vessels. At no point was the terminal vessel found between the capsule and the conjoined tendon. The medial femoral circumflex artery receives a direct supply from the inferior gluteal artery immediately before passing beneath the capsule of the hip. Detailed knowledge of this anatomy may help to explain the development of avascular necrosis after hip trauma, as well as to allow additional safe surgical exposure of the femoral neck and head