Background:. Achilles pathology is a serious and frequently occurring problem, especially in elite athletes. Recent research has suggested a role for the plantaris tendon in non-insertional achilles tendinopathy. We report on the outcomes after excision of the plantaris tendon in elite athletes. Aim:. To assess whether or not excising the plantaris tendon improves the symptoms of Achilles tendinopathy in elite athletes. Methods:. A group of 32 elite athletes who underwent plantaris tendon excision to treat medially located pain associated with non-insertional Achilles tendinopathy were investigated. Outcomes were assessed with pre and post-operative Visual Analogue Scores (VAS) for pain and the Foot and Ankle Outcome Score (FAOS) as well as time to return to sport and satisfaction scores. Results:. At a mean follow-up of 22.4 months (12–48), 29/32 (90%) of athletes were satisfied with the results. 30/32 athletes (94%) returned to sport at a mean of 10.3 weeks (5–27). The mean VAS score improved from 5.8 to 0.8 (p<0.01) and the mean FAOS improved in all domains (p<0.01). Conclusions:. The plantaris tendon may be responsible for symptoms in some patients with non-insertional Achilles tendinopathy. Excision using a mini-incision technique carries a low risk of complications and may provide significant improvement in symptoms enabling an early return to elite level sports

The two main categories of tendo Achillis tendon disorder are broadly classified by anatomical location to include non-insertional and insertional conditions. Non-insertional Achilles tendinopathy is often managed conservatively, and many rehabilitation protocols have been adapted and modified, with excellent clinical results. Emerging and popular alternative therapies, including a variety of injections and extracorporeal shockwave therapy, are often combined with rehabilitation protocols. Surgical approaches have developed, with minimally invasive procedures proving popular. The management of insertional Achilles tendinopathy is improved by recognising coexisting pathologies around the insertion. Conservative rehabilitation protocols as used in non-insertional disorders are thought to prove less successful, but such methods are being modified, with improving results. Treatment such as shockwave therapy is also proving successful. Surgical approaches specific to the diagnosis are constantly evolving, and good results have been achieved

Background. Most patients with Achilles tendinopathy (AT) are treated successfully with physiotherapy ie eccentric calf training. In some patients gastrocnemius contracture persists. Three other publications have reported improvement in AT following gastrocnemius release, but this is the first series of patients to have proximal medial gastrocnemius release (PMGR) for AT. The purpose of this study was to review patients with refractory non-insertional and insertional AT treated by PMGR with a minimum followup of 18 months. Method. Sixteen PMGRs were performed over a two year period. Nine patients (10 PMGRs) were available for followup. The mean age of patients was 45 (Range, 25 to 63) years, with five female and four male subjects. The average followup period was 2.5 (range, 1.7 to 3.3) years. The sample was divided into non-insertional and insertional tendinopathy, with five PMGRs per group. Outcome measures were VAS scores, VISA-A scores, AOFAS ankle-hindfoot score and overall satisfaction. Complications and further procedures were also recorded. Results. At an average of 2.5 years follow-up, two-thirds of patients were highly satisfied. The non-insertional tendinopathy group enjoyed better results than the insertional group: mean improvement in VISA-A scores were 59% (non-insertional) vs 22% (insertional); mean AOFAS scores improved by 29% (non-insertional) vs 15% (insertional). The improvement in the non-insertional group was statistically significant (p < 0.05) in all three outcome measures. Our findings further support that insertional tendinopathy is more resistant to calf stretching/lengthening treatments. Conclusion. In contrast to open or percutaneous debridement of the Achilles tendon, PMGR is a day surgical procedure that is well tolerated with excellent wound healing. Patients with non-insertional tendinopathy who have failed conservative treatment can expect significant improvement with VISA-A scores normalising after the procedure. We recommend PMGR for patients suffering recalcitrant non-insertional AT in whom gastrocnemius contracture persists despite an eccentric stretching program

Introduction: A recent clinical study has suggested that topical GTN may improve the outcome of non-insertional Achilles tendinopathy. The mechanism for this improvement is obscure but is thought to be due to modulation of local nitric oxide (NO) levels. The purpose of this study was to assess the clinical and histological results of topical GTN for non-insertional Achilles tendonitis. Methods: 40 patients with non-insertional Achilles tendonitis underwent standard non-operative therapy. 20 patients also used topical GTN daily. AOFAS, AOS visual analogue scores and SF36 forms were completed pre-treatment and 3 months later. Patients who failed conservative treatment and underwent surgery had histological examination of achilles tendon and histochemical analysis for isomers of NOS (eNOS and iNOS) as a marker of NO production. Results: There was an overall improvement in symptoms in both groups but no significant difference in the improvement bewtween them – there was no additional benefit in using GTN patches. 4 patients also had to stop using patches within 3 weeks because of headaches. Histological examination did not show any difference in collagen synthesis or remodelling between the 2 groups and there was no evidence of stimulated wound fibroblasts in the GTN group. There was no difference between the groups in the expression of eNOS or iNOS. Conclusion: This study fails to demonstrate any improvement in symptoms when using GTN patches. There is no histological evidence that GTN promotes degenerate tendon to stimulate wound fibroblasts and increase collagen synthesis and remodelling. GTN patches do not appear to modulate the expression of NOS enzymes in diseased Achilles tendon. The use of GTN patches in the treatment of non-insertional Achilles tendonitis remains questionable and the role of NO as a mediator of inflammatory response remains elusive

Introduction: A recent clinical study has suggested that topical GTN may improve the outcome of non-insertional Achilles tendinopathy. The mechanism for this improvement is obscure but is thought to be due to modulation of local nitric oxide (NO) levels. The purpose of this study was to assess the clinical and histological results of topical GTN for non-insertional Achilles tendonitis. Methods: 40 patients with non-insertional Achilles tendonitis underwent standard non¬operative therapy. 20 patients also used topical GTN daily. AOFAS, AOS visual analogue scores and SF36 forms were completed pre-treatment and 3 months later. Patients who failed conservative treatment and underwent surgery had histological examination of the Achilles tendon and histochemical analysis for isomers of NOS (eNOS and iNOS) as a marker of NO production. Results: There was an overall improvement in symptoms in both groups but no significant difference in the improvement between them – there was no additional benefit in using GTN patches. 4 patients also had to stop using patches within 3 weeks because of headaches. Histological examination did not show any difference in collagen synthesis or remodelling between the 2 groups and there was no evidence of stimulated wound fibroblasts in the GTN group. There was no difference between the groups in the expression of eNOS or iNOS. Conclusion: This study fails to demonstrate any improvement in symptoms when using GTN patches. There is no histological evidence that GTN promotes degenerate tendon to stimulate wound fibroblasts and increase collagen synthesis and remodelling. GTN patches do not appear to modulate the expression of NOS enzymes in diseased Achilles tendon. The use of GTN patches in the treatment of non-insertional Achilles tendonitis remains questionable and the role of NO as a mediator of inflammatory response remains elusive

Introduction: The pathogenesis of chronic tendinopathy is unclear. A role for increased apoptosis of tenocytes has been suggested. Nitric oxide is thought to be a mediator of apoptosis and nitric oxide synthase (NOS) isoforms have been shown to be up regulated in rotator cuff tendons as a result of chronic overuse. We found, the same up regulation of NOS in the Achilles tendon in non-insertional Achilles tendinopathy in a previous study. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether apoptotic cells were present in these tissues with raised endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) levels. Methods: Consent was obtained preoperatively from all patients and the research and ethics committee granted ethical approval. Samples were obtained from the Achilles Tendons of patients with non-insertional Achilles tendinopathy who had failed conservative treatment for at least six months and were undergoing a surgical procedure. Several biopsies were taken of the visibly abnormal tendon tissue. Control samples were taken from macroscopically normal tendon correlating with areas of normal tissue on MRI. Standard immunohistochemical techniques were used to identify the expression of eNOS and iNOS. Apoptotic cells were identified using terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP neck end labelling (TUNEL reaction) with TdT-FragEL and the demonstration of Caspase-3 activation. Results: Significant differences were found between the diseased tendon and the controls for all of the parameters measured. The mean Caspase-3 cell count for diseased tendon was 51.9 compared to 28.3 for the controls (p=0.000001). The mean TUNEL cell count for diseased tendon was 24.1 compared to 14.8 (p=0.00014). iNOS densitometry revealed a mean of 26.1 for the diseased tissue verses 15.0 for the controls (p=0.000009) and the values for eNOS were 48.3 and 23.7 respectively (p=0.015). Conclusions: Apoptosis clearly plays a role in the development of non-insertional Achilles tendinopathy and appears to be related to the presence of raised eNOS and iNOS levels. It is possible that, by blocking the apoptotic pathway, the tendinopathic process could be halted. This may lead to the development of treatments strategies for early Achilles tendinopathy

Introduction: The pathogenesis of chronic tendinopathy is unclear. The role of the increased apoptosis of tenocytes has been suggested by high intratendinous levels of glutamate being demonstrated in patients with tendinosis. Nitric oxide is a known mediator of apoptosis and nitric oxide synthase (NOS) isoforms have been shown to be upregulated in rotator cuff tendons as a result of chronic overuse. We found, the same upregulation of NOS in the Achilles tendon in non-insertional Achilles tendinopathy in a previous study. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether apoptotic cells were present in these tissues with raised eNOS and iNOS levels. Methods: Samples were obtained from the Achilles Tendons of patients with in non-insertional Achilles tendinopathy who had failed conservative treatment for at least six months and were undergoing a surgical procedure. Consent was obtained preoperatively from all patients and ethical approval was granted by the research ethics committee. Several biopsies were taken of the visibly abnormal tendon tissue. Control samples were taken from macroscopically normal tendon correlating with areas of normal tissue on MRI. Standard immunohistochemical techniques were used to identify the expression of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). Apoptotic cells were identified using terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP neck end labelling (TUNEL reaction) with TdT-FragEL and the demonstration of Caspase-3 activation. A power calculation was performed which showed that 14 patients in each group would be required to show a 50% difference between the two groups using a level of significance of 5%. Results: Significant differences were found between the diseased tendon and the controls for all of the parameters measured. The mean Caspase-3 cell count for diseased tendon was 51.9 compared to 28.3 for the controls (p=0.000001). The mean TUNEL cell count for diseased tendon was 24.1 compared to 14.8 (p=0.00014). iNOS densitometry revealed a mean of 26.1 for the diseased tissue verses 15.0 for the controls (p=0.000009) and the values for eNOS were 48.3 and 23.7 respectively (p=0.015). Conclusions: Apoptosis clearly plays a role in the development of non-insertional Achilles tendinopathy and appears to be related to the presence of raised eNOS and iNOS levels. It is possible that, by blocking the apoptotic pathway, the tendinopathic process could be halted. This may lead to the development of treatments strategies for early Achilles tendinopathy

In a prospective study to evaluate the benefits of radial extracorporeal shockwave therapy (ESWT) in patients with longstanding chronic Achilles tendonitis. 34 cases of non-insertional Achilles tendonitis were treated in 32 patients, using radial shockwave treatment. Symptoms had been present for at least ten months and were resistant to conservative treatments. Patients received three shockwave sessions at weekly intervals. Evaluation was performed prior to treatment, at six weeks and three months after the final session. Patients completed a visual analogue score (VAS) for maximal pain (0–100), the American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society (AOFAS) ankle-hindfoot Scale and the Victorian Institute of Sport Assessment-Achilles questionnaire (VISA-A). At short-term review all patients reported an improvement in symptoms. The VAS fell from a pre-treatment value of 74 (+/−15) to 22 (+/−17). An improvement in the AOFAS from of 64 (+/−10) to a post-treatment value of 90(+/−7) was seen, and an average from 30 to 70 in the VISA-A score. No complications from the treatment were reported. Four patients previously listed for surgery have improved sufficiently to be removed from the waiting list. Conclusion: Short-term results using ESWT for the treatment of longstanding non-insertional Achilles tendonitis are encouraging. Longer-term follow-up subsequent to this prospective pilot study is underway to assess if results are reproducible over a greater time period

Eighty-one patients treated surgically for non-insertional Achilles’ tendinopathy between 1987 and 1999 by one surgeon were reviewed by a comprehensive postal questionnaire. Fifty-six patients (73 tendons) returned a questionnaire at an average of 58.7 months after surgery. The duration of preoperative symptoms averaged 24.6 months. In all cases, conservative treatment was first attempted but failed to alleviate symptoms. Twenty (35.7%) of these patients were involved in competitive or serious recreational sport. There were 34 men and 22 women with a mean age of 42.5 years (range: 23 to 66). All patients who had insertional tendinopathy or retrocalcaneal bursitis were excluded from this study. The surgical procedure consisted of excision of the paratenon circumferentially and early mobilisation. All patients had the same post operative treatment. There were 77.5% excellent, 6.4% good, 6.4% fair and 6.4% poor results. Eleven percent developed complications post operatively. We concluded that surgical decompression of the Achilles’ tendon is a very effective treatment for patients with non-insertional Achilles’ tendinopathy who have failed conservative treatment

Aims: A prospective study to evaluate the beneþts of extracorporeal shockwave therapy (ESWT) in patients with chronic Achilles tendonitis. Methods: 34 cases of non-insertional Achilles tendonitis were treated in 32 patients, using radial shockwave treatment. Symptoms had been present for at least ten months and were resistant to conservative treatments. Patients received three shockwaves sessions at weekly intervals. Evaluation was performed prior to treatment, at six weeks and three months after the þnal session. Patients completed a visual analogue score (VAS) for maximal pain (0–100), the American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society (AOFAS) ankle-hind foot Scale and the Victorian Institute of Sport Assessment-Achilles questionnaire (VISA-A). Results: At short term review all patients reported an improvement in symptoms. The VAS fell from a pre-treatment value of 74 (±15) to 22(±17). An improvement in the AOFAS from of 64 (±10) to a post-treatment value of 90(±7) was seen, and an average from 30 to 70 in the VISA-A score. No complications from the treatment were reported. Four patients previously listed for surgery have improved sufþciently to be removed from the waiting list. Conclusion: Shortterm results using ESWT for the treatment of longstanding non-insertional Achilles tendonitis are encouraging. Longer Ðterm follow-up subsequent to this prospective pilot study is underway to assess if results are reproducible over a greater time period

Introduction. Plantar fasciopathy is a common cause of heel pain, and is usually treated in primary practice with conservative measures. Intractable cases can prove very difficult to treat. Currently plantar fasciopathy is not routinely imaged and treatment is empirical. At the Royal Surrey County Hospital patients with intractable plantar fasciopathy are managed in a unique ‘one-stop’ Heel Pain clinic. Here they undergo clinical assessment, ultrasound scanning and targeted therapy. Methods. Patients referred to the clinic since 2009, with symptoms lasting longer than 6 months and failed conservative management, were prospectively followed. Plantar fasciopathy was confirmed on ultrasound scanning. The ultrasound scans were used to classify the disease characteristics of the plantar fascia. Results. 125 feet (120 patients) were found to have plantar fascia disease. Ultrasound scans demonstrated 64% with typical insertional pathology only. The remaining 36% had atypical distal fascia involvement, with either pure distal disease or a combination of insertional and distal disease. Patients with atypical distal disease were found to have either distal thickening or discrete fibromata. Conclusion. The high proportion of atypical (non-insertional) disease in this cohort shows that ultrasound scanning is valuable in determining location and characterising the pathology in the plantar fascia. Atypical pathology would otherwise not be detected. We propose a new classification for plantar fasciopathy; insertional fasciopathy or non-insertional fasciopathy. This is in keeping with current classification of achilles tendinopathy. The main benefit of this Guildford Classification is in determining optimum treatments for recalcitrant plantar fasciopathies. Empirical treatment is not adequate for recalcitrant cases

Introduction. The mainstay of treatment in non-insertional Achilles tendinopathy is non-operative, however between 1/4 and 1/3 of patients fail this. The main symptom is pain which appears to be related to new nerve endings that grow into the tendon with the neovessels from the paratenon. Treatments which strip the paratenon from the tendon are showing promise including formal paratenon stripping via Achilles tendinoscopy. The pain and swelling in Achilles tendinopathy is usually on the medial side leading to the postulation that the plantaris tendon may have a role to play. Methods. We report a consecutive series of 11 patients who underwent Achilles tendinoscopy with stripping of the paratenon and division of the plantaris tendon, above the level of the tendinopathic changes in the Achilles. All patients had failed conservative treatment for at least 6 months and requested surgical intervention. The patients were scored with the SF-36, AOS and AOFAS hindfoot questionnaires pre-operatively and at a minimum of 2 years post operatively. They also recorded their level of satisfaction with the treatment at final follow up. Results. The mean AOFAS scores significantly improved from 68 pre-op to 92 post op (p = 0.0002) as did the AOS scores for both pain (28% pre-op to 8% post op (p=0.0004)) and disability (38% pre-op to 10% post op (p=0.0005). The mean SF-36 scores also improved but were not statistically significant (pre-op 76 post op 87 (P = 0.059). There were no complications. 8 of the 11 patients were satisfied, the other 3 somewhat satisfied. Conclusion. The results of Achilles tendinoscopy and division of the plantaris tendon are encouraging but further studies are required to compare it to other treatments. It is minimally invasive and low risk so should not affect the ability to perform a formal open procedure if unsuccessful

The December 2022 Foot & Ankle Roundup³⁶⁰ looks at: Evans calcaneal osteotomy and multiplanar correction in flat foot deformity; Inflammatory biomarkers in tibialis posterior tendon dysfunction; Takedown of ankle fusions and conversion to total ankle arthroplasty; Surgical incision closure with three different materials; Absorbable sutures are not inferior to nonabsorbable sutures for tendo Achilles repair; Zadek’s osteotomy is a reliable technique for treating Haglund’s syndrome; How to best assess patient limitations after acute Achilles tendon injury; Advances in the management of infected nonunion of the foot and ankle.

The February 2014 Foot & Ankle Roundup³⁶⁰ looks at: optimal medial malleolar fixation; resurfacing in the talus; predicting outcome in mobility ankles; whether mal-aligned ankles can be successfully replaced; cartilage colonisation in bipolar ankle grafts; CTs and proof of fusion; recalcitrant Achilles tendinopathy; and recurrent fifth metatarsal stress fractures.

The April 2013 Foot & Ankle Roundup³⁶⁰ looks at: whether arthroscopic arthrodesis is advantageous; osteochondral autografts; suture button associated fractures; an ultrasound solution to Achilles tendinopathy; the safety of the tendo Achilles in men; charcot and antibiotic-coated nails; and botox and Policeman’s Heel.

The use of ultrasound in the diagnosis and management of disorders of the tendo Achillis is discussed. Some of the pathological processes which occur in Achilles tendinopathy can be identified by ultrasound, which may also be used to direct local treatment.