Aims. We quantitatively compared the 3D bone density distributions on CT scans performed on scaphoid waist fractures subacutely that went on to union or nonunion, and assessed whether 2D CT evaluations correlate with 3D bone density evaluations. Methods. We constructed 3D models from 17 scaphoid waist fracture CTs performed between four to 18 weeks after fracture that did not unite (nonunion group), 17 age-matched scaphoid waist fracture CTs that healed (union group), and 17 age-matched control CTs without injury (control group). We measured the 3D bone density for the distal and proximal fragments relative to the triquetrum bone density and compared findings among the three groups. We then performed bone density measurements using 2D CT and evaluated the correlation with 3D bone densities. We identified the optimal cutoff with diagnostic values of the 2D method to predict nonunion with receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves. Results. In the nonunion group, both the distal (100.2%) and proximal (126.6%) fragments had a significantly higher bone density compared to the union (distal: 85.7%; proximal: 108.3%) or control groups (distal: 91.6%; proximal: 109.1%) using the 3D bone density measurement, which were statistically significant for all comparisons. 2D measurements were highly correlated to 3D bone density measurements (Spearman’s correlation coefficient (R) = 0.85 to 0.95). Using 2D measurements, ROC curve analysis revealed the optimal cutoffs of 90.8% and 116.3% for distal and proximal fragments. This led to a sensitivity of 1.00 if either cutoff is met and a specificity of 0.82 when both cutoffs are met. Conclusion. Using 3D modelling software, nonunions were found to exhibit bone density increases in both the distal and proximal fragments in CTs performed between four to 18 weeks after fracture during the course of treatment. 2D bone density measurements using standard CT scans correlate well with 3D models. In patients with scaphoid fractures, CT bone density measurements may be useful in predicting the likelihood of nonunion. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2020;102-B(9):1200–1209

Introduction. The increased prevalence of osteoporosis in the patient population undergoing reverse shoulder arthroplasty (RSA) results in significantly increased complication rates. Mainly demographic and clinical predictors are currently taken into the preoperative assessment for risk stratification without quantification of preoperative computed tomography (CT) data (e.g. bone density). It was hypothesized that preoperative CT bone density measures would provide objective quantification with subsequent classification of the patients’ humeral bone quality. Methods. Thirteen bone density parameters from 345 preoperative CT scans of a clinical RSA cohort represented the data set in this study. The data set was divided into testing (30%) and training data (70%), latter included an 8-fold cross validation. Variable selection was performed by choosing the variables with the highest descriptive value for each correlation clustered variables. Machine learning models were used to improve the clustering (Hierarchical Ward) and classification (Support Vector Machine (SVM)) of bone densities at risk for complications and were compared to a conventional statistical model (Logistic Regression (LR)). Results. Clustering partitioned this cohort (training data set) into a high bone density subgroup consisting of 96 patients and a low bone density subgroup consisting of 146 patients. The optimal number of clusters (n = 2) was determined based on optimization metrics. Discrimination of the cross validated classification model showed comparable performance for the training (accuracy=91.2%; AUC=0.967) and testing data (accuracy=90.5 %; AUC=0.958) while outperforming the conventional statistical model (Logistic Regression (LR)). Local interpretable model-agnostic explanations (LIME) were created for each patient to explain how the predicted output was achieved. Conclusion. The trained and tested model provides preoperative information for surgeons treating patients with potentially poor bone quality. The use of machine learning and patient-specific calibration showed that multiple 3D bone density scores improved accuracy for objective preoperative bone quality assessment

Abstract. Introduction. After remodelling, loss of bone density beside the keel of cementless UKR tibial components has been observed as a potential cause of concern. How this affects patient-reported outcomes, and further clinical implications, is unclear. This study aims to assess the effect of cementless UKR implantation on tibial bone density, and to explore its relationship to patient demographics and outcomes. Method. This prospective study assesses 115 anterior-posterior radiographs from cementless UKR postoperatively and five years after surgery. Grey values from nine regions around each keel were collected and standardised to enable inter-radiograph comparison. Change between the post-operative and 5-year radiographs (indicating bone density) was calculated, and effect on 5-year patient demographics and pain and functional outcomes was assessed. Repeat measurements were performed by two operators to assess reliability. Results. There was excellent inter-operator correlation. There was increased bone density directly below the keel (9.1% vs 3.3%: p<0.0001), and reduced density beside the keel (−5.9% vs -1.0%, p<0.0001); comparisons to adjacent regions. Overall remodelling was significantly greater in smaller tibias (p=0.006), and females (p=0.01). Remodelling was unrelated to outcomes (OKS, ICOAP-A/B, TAS), age, and BMI. Conclusion. Remodelling patterns suggest increased loading below and decreased loading adjacent to the tibial keel. Remodelling is greater in smaller tibias and females. Remodelling is not related to any patient-reported pain or function five years after surgery, suggesting that remodelling is successful in removing any mechanical source of bone pain. Therefore, clinicians viewing such remodelling patterns can ignore them as they are of no consequence

In shoulder arthroplasty, humeral resurfacing or short stem devices rely on the proximal humeral bone for fixation and load transfer. For resurfacing designs, the fixation takes place above the anatomical neck, whilst for short stem designs the resection is made at the anatomical neck and fixation is achieved in the bone distal to that resection. The aim of the study is to investigate the bone density in these proximal areas to provide information for implant design and guidance on appropriate positions to place implant fixation entities. CT scans of healthy humeri were used to map bone density distribution in the humeral head. CT scans were manually segmented and a solid model of the proximal humerus was discretised into 1mm tetrahedral elements. Each element centroid was then assigned an apparent bone density based on CT scan Grey values. Matlab was used to sort data in spatial groups according to element centroid position to map bone density distribution. The humeral head was divided into twenty 2mm thick slices parallel to the humeral neck starting from the most proximal region of the humeral head to distal regions beneath epiphyseal plate (Fig 1a). Each slice was then radially divided into 30 concentric circles and each circle was angularly divided into 12 regions (Fig 1b). The bone density for each of these regions was calculated by averaging density values of element centroid residing in each region. Average bone density in each slice indicates that bone density decreases from proximal region to distal regions below the epiphyseal plate and higher bone density was measured proximal to the anatomical neck of the humerus (Fig2). Figure 3 shows that, both above and below the anatomical neck, bone density increases from central to peripheral regions where eventually cortical bone occupies the space. This trend is more pronounced in regions below the anatomical neck and above the epiphyseal plate. In distal slices below the anatomical neck, a higher bone density distribution in inferior (calcar) regions was also observed. Current generation short stem designs require a resection at the anatomical neck of the humerus and a cruciform keel to fix the implant in the distal bone. In the example in Figure 3, the anatomical neck resection corresponds to the 18 mm slice, with the central cruciform keel engaging between slices 18 mm and 27 mm. The data indicates that this keel should make use of the denser bone by the calcar for fixation, suggesting a crucifix orientation as highlighted in Figure 3. The current generation of proximally fixed humeral components are less invasive than conventional long-stemmed designs, but the disadvantage is that they must achieve fixation over a smaller surface area and with a less advantageous lever arm down the shaft of the humerus. By presenting a spatial density map of the proximal humerus, the current study may help improve fixation of proximally fixed designs, with a simple modification of implant rotational orientation to make use of the denser bone in the calcar region for fixation and load transfer

The purpose of this study is to quantify the distribution of bone density in the scapulae of patients undergoing reverse shoulder arthroplasty (RSA) to guide optimal screw placement. To achieve this aim, we compared bone density in regions around the glenoid that are targeted for screw placement, as well as bone density variations medial to lateral within the glenoid. Specimen included twelve scapula in 12 patients with a mean age of 74 years (standard deviation = 9.2 years). Each scapula underwent a computed tomography (CT) scan with a Lightspeed+ XCR 16-Slice CT scanner (General Electric, Milwaukee, USA). Three-dimensional (three-D) surface mesh models and masks of the scapulae containing three-D voxel locations along with the relative Hounsfield Units (HU) were created. Regions of interest (ROI) were selected based on their potential glenoid baseplate screw positioning in RSA surgery. These included the base of coracoid inferior and lateral to the suprascapular notch, an anterior and posterior portion of the scapular spine, and an anterosuperior and inferior portion of the lateral border. Five additional regions resembling a clock face, on the glenoid articular surface were then selected to analyze medial to lateral variations in bone density including twelve, three, six, and nine-o'clock positions as well as a central region. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) tests were used to examine statistical differences in bone density between each region of interest (p < 0 .05). For the regional evaluation, the coracoid lateral to the suprascapular notch was significantly less dense than the inferior portion of the lateral border (mean difference = 85.6 HU, p=0.03), anterosuperior portion of the lateral border (mean difference = 82.7 HU, p=0.04), posterior spine (mean difference = 97.6 HU, p=0.007), and anterior spine (mean difference = 99.3 HU, p=0.006). For the medial to lateral evaluation, preliminary findings indicate a “U” pattern with the densest regions of bone in the glenoid most medially and most laterally with a region of less dense bone in-between. The results from this study utilizing clinical patient CT scans, showed similar results to those found in our previous cadaveric study where the coracoid region was significantly less dense than regions around the lateral scapular border and scapular spine. We also have found for medial to lateral bone density, a “U” distribution with the densest regions of bone most medially and most laterally in the glenoid, with a region of less dense bone between most medial and most lateral. Clinical applications for our results include a carefully planned trajectory when placing screws in the scapula, potentially avoiding the base of coracoid. Additionally, surgeons may choose variable screw lengths depending on the region of bone and its variation of density medial to lateral, and that screws that pass beyond the most lateral (subchondral) bone, will only achieve further purchase if they enter the denser bone more medially. We suspect that if surgeons strategically aim screw placement for the regions of higher bone density, they may be able to decrease micromotion in baseplate fixation and increase the longevity of RSA

Background. Some models of knee osteoarthritis (OA) suggest that the properties of knee tissues are adapted in healthy joints, and that OA development is due to a breakdown in the equilibrium among tissue properties. Cartilage thickness and bone density are particularly important properties in this regard because both are related to the mechanical environment. This study tested the hypothesis that locations of thickest cartilage are associated with locations where bone density is the highest in non-OA tibias. Method. CT-arthrography was performed on six non-OA subjects (2 males; 58± 15 years old). Images were segmented to build 3D models of the bone and cartilage structures. Maps of cartilage thickness were calculated for the medial and lateral subchondral bone areas by measuring the distance between bone and cartilage structures. Bone density maps were calculated based on the intensity of the CT-arthrography signal in the first 3mm of bone. The location of thickest cartilage and most dense bone were measured in the medial and lateral compartments. These locations were then normalised, and paired t-tests and linear regressions were performed to compare the thickness and density locations. Results. In the medial compartment, the location of highest bone density was significantly more medial than the location of thickest cartilage (p=0.03). Additionally, the location of both features were highly correlated along the anterior-posterior direction (R⁁2=0.92). In the lateral compartment, the location of highest bone density was correlated with the location of thickest cartilage along the medial-lateral direction (R⁁2 =0.64). Conclusion. This study showed that the location of highest bone density is correlated with the location of thickest cartilage in non-OA tibias, thus supporting the idea that knee tissues are adapted in healthy knees

Few studies suggest that the use of a cemented stem reduces proximal stresses and may result in proximal bone resorption. Aim of our study: Does bone cement affect peri prosthetic bone density? The study was approved by the local ethics committee. Patient and methods: 30 patients were included in each group based on power analysis. All 60 patients had the same type of knee replacement (Rotaglide rotating platform). Both groups, cemented and uncemented respectively were matched for the variables like mean age (67.2 & 67.33 years), gender (13: 17 males: females), body mass index (30.95, 29.90), average time following surgery (4 and 3.25 years), activity level (UCLA scoring: 6 & 4) and mean T score (osteoporosis index: −0.51 & −0.62). Periprosthetic bone density was measured in five regions of interest in the distal femur and five regions of interest in the proximal tibia. This was performed with Prodigy scanner (Lunar) using ‘orthopedic’ software to eliminate metal related artifacts. The same area was measured on the opposite unoperated knee. The values thus obtained were compared between the cemented and uncemented groups. Results: There was no statistically significant difference in bone density around proximal tibia, patella and bone density proximal to femoral flange. However, there was some difference between the groups for bone density behind the flange of the femoral component measured in the lateral view, although not strictly significant at the 5% level. In this region of interest, the bone density in the cemented group appears to be less than in the uncemented group (p=0.059). Conclusion: Use of bone cement do not seem to alter the peri prosthetic bone density contrary to suggestions in a few other studies. While reduction in periprosthetic bone density is noted in both groups, use of bone cement did not affect the results significantly

Introduction: The Resurfacing Hip has been increasingly popular for younger patients. Femoral neck fractures are still the main complication. The problems associated with cement such as thermal necrosis, cement debris and lack of long-term biological fixation, combined with the general use of cementless fixation in young patients invite the question whether a cementless component can be used for resurfacing hip replacement. Given that the cement may reinforce the femoral head preventing collapse, an additional question regarding the effect of bone density in cemented and cementless fixation can be asked. The hypotheses of the study are that:. High bone density will increase the yield point and stiffness of the femoral head and therefore improve the implant fixation. Cement fixation will increase the yield point and stiffness of the femoral head, especially for the lower density bone compared with cementless fixation. Materials and Methods: Thirty-six femoral head specimens were obtained from consented patients receiving routine hip arthroplasty. The heads were stored frozen at −20oC until use. pQCT was used to analyse trabecular bone density within each head. Specimens were ranked according to bone density and were assigned to high and low bone density groups. Cemented and cementless fixations were then alternatively assigned to individual heads in each group. Thus the 4 groups included in the study were: High density cemented, high density cementless, low density cemented, and low density cementless. Implantation of Birmingham resurfacing hips was carried out according to recommended surgical procedures. For cementing groups, surgical simplex P bone cement was used. Each sample was potted in a cylindrical polyethylene block for testing. A compressive load up to 5 or 10 KN using a Hounsfield Universal Testing Machine were applied on each sample at a rate of 1 mm min-1. Load versus displacement graphs were plotted for all tests. Yield point and stiffness were measured for each sample. Results:. For yield point, there is no significant difference between cemented or cementless resurfacing (4169 ± 1420 N vs. 3789 ± 1461 N; P = 0.434). However, the high density heads provide a significantly higher yield point than low density heads (4749 ± 1145 N vs. 3208 ± 1287 N; P = 0.01). The addition of cement significantly contributes to femoral head stiffness compared to cementless resurfacing (5174 ± 1730 N/mm vs. 3678 ± 1630 N/mm; P = 0.012). Discussion: Bone density plays an important role in resurfacing hip arthroplasty. Higher bone density will reduce the incidence of fractures comparing with lower density. Therefore, resurfacing THR for the older patients and those with sub-optimal bone density should be used with caution. Consequently, it is suggested that a bone density scan should be routinely applied for those patients who are considered for resurfacing hip replacement. There is no difference between the cemented and cementless fixation in reducing femoral head failure, though cement will increase the stiffness of the bone. The study suggests that cementless resurfacing hip could be an alternative design with its clinical advantages of long-term osseointegration if implant is coated with bio-active materials

Tibial bone density may affect implant stability and functional outcomes following total knee replacement (TKR). Our aim was to characterise the bone density profile at the implant-tibia interface following TKR in mechanical versus kinematic alignment. Pre-operative computed tomography scans for 10 patients were obtained. Using surgical planning software, tibial cuts were made for TKR either neutral (mechanical) or 3 degrees varus (kinematic) alignment. Signal intensity, in Hounsfield Units (HU), was measured at 25,600 points throughout an axial slice at the implant-tibia interface and density profiles compared along defined radial axes from the centre of the tibia towards the cortices. From the tibial centre towards the lateral cortex, trabecular bone density for kinematic and mechanical TKR are similar in the inner 50% but differ significantly beyond this (p= 0.012). There were two distinct density peaks, with peak trabecular bone density being higher in kinematic TKR (p<0.001) and peak cortical bone density being higher in mechanical TKR (p<0.01). The difference in peak cortical to peak trabecular signal was 43 HU and 185 HU respectively (p<0.001). On the medial side there was no significant difference in density profile and a linear increase from centre to cortex. In the lateral proximal tibia, peak cortical and peak trabecular bone densities differ between kinematic TKR and mechanical TKR. Laterally, mechanical TKR may be more dependent upon cortical bone for support compared to kinematic TKR, where trabecular bone density is higher. This may have implications for surgical planning and implant design

Background. Defining optimal coronal alignment in Total Knee Replacement (TKR) is a controversial and poorly understood subject. Tibial bone density may affect implant stability and functional outcomes following TKR. Our aim was to compare the bone density profile at the implant-tibia interface following TKR in mechanical versus kinematic alignment. Methods. Pre-operative CT scans for 10 patients undergoing medial unicompartmental knee arthroplasty were obtained. Using surgical planning software, tibial cuts were made for TKR with 7 degrees posterior slope and either neutral (mechanical) or 3 degrees varus (kinematic) alignment. Signal intensity, in Hounsfield Units (HU), was measured at 25,600 points throughout an axial slice at the implant-tibia interface and density profiles compared along defined radial axes from the centre of the tibia towards the cortices (Hotelling's t-squared and paired t-test). Results. From the tibial centre towards the lateral cortex, trabecular bone density for kinematic and mechanical TKR are similar in the inner 50% but differ significantly beyond this (p= 0.012). There were two distinct density peaks, with peak trabecular bone density being higher in kinematic TKR (p<0.001) and peak cortical bone density being higher in mechanical TKR (p<0.01). The difference in peak cortical to peak trabecular signal was 43 HU and 185 HU respectively (p<0.001). On the medial side there was no significant difference in density profile and a linear increase from centre to cortex. Conclusions. In the lateral proximal tibia, there is significantly less difference between peak cortical and peak trabecular bone densities in kinematic TKR compared to mechanical TKR. Laterally, mechanical TKR may be more dependent upon cortical bone for support compared to kinematic TKR, where trabecular bone density is higher. This may have implications for surgical planning and implant design

Peri-prosthetic bone loss caused by stress shielding may be associated with aseptic loosening of femoral components. In order to increase primary stability and to reduce stress shielding, a three-dimensional, cementless individual femoral (Evolution K) component was manufactured using pre-operative CT scans. Using dual energy x-ray absorptiometry, peri-prosthetic bone density was measured in 43 patients, three months, six months, 3.6 and 4.6 years after surgery. At final follow-up there was a significant reduction in mean bone density in the proximal Gruen zones of −30.3% (zone 7) and −22.8% (zone 1). The density in the other zones declined by a mean of between −4% and −16%. We conclude that the manufacture of a three-dimensional, custom-made femoral component could not prevent a reduction in peri-prosthetic bone density

Introduction. Femoral component loosening is one of the most common failure modes in cementless total hip arthroplasty (THA). Patient age, weight, gender, osteopenia, stem design and Dorr-C bone have all been proposed as risk factors for poor fixation and subsequent stem subsidence and poor outcome. With the increased popularity of CT-based assistive technologies in THA, (Stryker MAKO and Corin OPSTM), we sought to develop a technique to predicted femoral stem fixation using pre-operative CT. Methods. Fourteen patients requiring THA were randomly selected from a previous study investigating component alignment. Mean age was 64 (53 to 76), and 57% were female. All patients received pre-operative CT for 3D dynamic templating (OPSTM), and a TriFit stem and Trinity cup (Corin, UK) implanted through a posterior approach. Post-operatively, patients received an immediate CT and AP x-ray prior to leaving the hospital, and a 1-year follow-up x-ray. On both the immediate post-op x-ray and 1-year follow-up x-ray, the known cup diameter was used to scale the image. On both images, the distance between the most superior point of the greater trochanter and the shoulder of the stem was measured. The difference was recorded as stem subsidence. Subsidence greater than 4mm was deemed clinically relevant. The post-operative CT was used to determine the precise three-dimensional placement of the stem immediately after surgery by registering the known 3D implant geometry to the CT. For each patient, the achieved stem position from post-op CT was then virtually implanted back into the pre-operative OPSTM planning software. The software provides a colour map of the bone density at the stem/bone interface using the Hounsfield Units (HU) of each pixel of the CT [Fig. 1]. Blue represents low density bone transitioning through to green and then red (most dense). Results. Mean stem subsidence was 2.1mm (0.2mm to 11.1mm). Two patients had clinically relevant subsidence. The first stem in a 68M subsided 11.1mm. The second in a 58M subsided 5.0mm. Both density colour plots had significant areas of blue (low density bone) around the proximal portion of the stem, with minimal medium/high density fixation when compared to the stems with minimal subsidence. Discussion. Using the Hounsfield units of the CT scan as an indicator for bone density, we were able to predict poor implant fixation and subsequent subsidence in a taper wedge stem. This new technology might have pre-operative value in providing a more quantitative measure of fixation and resultant stem choice. For any figures or tables, please contact the authors directly

Introduction. The success of cementless total hip arthroplasty (THA) depends on the primary stability of the components. One of the biomechanical factors that comes into play is the mechanical quality of the bone. To our knowledge, there are no reported studies in the literature analyzing the impact of the preoperative bone mineral density on the outcomes of cementless THA. The goal of the study was to analyze the clinical results at 2 year follow-up according to the preoperative cancellous bone mineral density (BD). Our hypothesis was that the clinical outcomes were correlated to the BD. Material and methods. From January to June 2013, a prospective study included patients who underwent a cementless THA using a proximally shortly fixed anatomic stem. A 3D preoperative CTscan-based planning was performed according to the routine protocol using the Hip-Plan software in order to determine the hip reconstruction goals as well as the implants size and position. The Hounsfield bone density (BD) of the metaphyseal cancellous bone was computed in a volume (of 1 mm thick and of 1cm² surface) at the level of the calcar 10 mm above the top of the lesser trochanter and laterally to the medial cortical (Figure 1). Intra-and inter-observer repeatability measurements were performed. Patients were clinically assessed at 2 years follow-up using self-administered auto-questionnaires corresponding to the Harris and the Oxford scores. A Multivariate statistical analysis assessed correlations between clinical scores, age, gender, body mass index, and BD. Results. 50 patients were included consisting of 29 men and 21 women, with an average age of 62 ± 12 years and an average BMI of 25.8. The average preoperative BD was 69.4 ± 54 HU. At 2 years follow-up, the hip function scores were significantly correlated with the preoperative BD (0.42, p = 0.002) and the age (0.39, p = 0.005). However, there was no significant correlation between BD and BMI. Discussion Bone density appears to be an important parameter to consider when planning THA. This highlights also the importance of preoperative image calibration. Conclusion. The functional outcomes after cementless THA are correlated with preoperative cancellous bone density. Bone density needs to be integrated into THA 3D planning

As an alternative to total hip arthroplasty (THA), hip resurfacing arthroplasty (HRA) provides the advantage of retaining bone stock. However, femoral component loosening and femoral neck fracture continue to be leading causes of revision in HRA. Surgical technique including cementation method and bone preparation, and patient selection are known to be important for fixation. This study was designed to understand if and to what extent compromise in bone quality and the presence of cysts in the proximal femur contribute to resurfacing component loosening. A finite element (FE) model of a proximal femur was used to calculate the stress in the cement layer. Bone density to Young's modulus relationship was used to calibrate the bone stiffness in the model using computed tomography. A contemporary resurfacing implant (BHR, Smith & Nephew) was used in the FE model. The effect of reduced bone quality (35% reduction relative to normal baseline; osteoporosis threshold) and presence of cysts on stress in the bone cement layer was then assessed using the same FE model. The center of the cyst (a localized spherical cavity 1 cm in diameter) was located directly under the contact patch. Simulations were run with two locations of the center of the cyst, on the surface of the resected bone and 1 cm below it. The surface cyst was filled with bone cement, but the inner cyst was empty. The contact force and location for the model were obtained from instrumented implant studies. Simulations were run representing the peak loads during two activities, jogging and stand-up from seated position. While density reduction of the bone reduced the stress in the CoCr femoral head, the Von-Mises stress in the cement layer was amplified. The peak Von-Mises stress in the cement layer under the contact patch increased more than six times for the jogging activity, and more than ten times for the stand-up activity, relative to values for normal bone density. The impact of cysts on the cement layer stress or the strain distributions in the bone were minimal. The results show a greater risk of failure of the cement layer under conditions of reduced bone density. In contrast cement stresses and bone strains appeared to be relatively immune to a surface cyst filled with bone cement or an empty inner cyst. Contraindications of hip resurfacing include severe osteopenia and multiple cysts of the femoral head, however no strict or quantitative criteria exist to guide patient selection. Research similar to the one presented herein, maybe key to developing better patient selection criteria to reduce risk associated with compromised femoral head fixation

Background. Following an anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury, the affected knee is known to experience bone loss and is at significant risk of becoming osteoporotic. Surgical reconstruction is performed to attempt to restore the function of the knee and theoretically restore this bone density loss. Cross-sectional analysis of the proximal tibia using peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT) enables localised analysis of bone mineral density (BMD) changes. The aim of this study was to establish the pattern of bone density changes in the tibia pre- and post- ACL reconstruction using pQCT image analysis. Methods. Eight patients who underwent ACL reconstruction were included. A cross sectional analysis of the proximal tibia was performed using a pQCT scanner pre-operatively and one to two years post-operatively on both the injured and contralateral (control) knee. The proximal two and three percent slices [S2 and S3] along the tibia were acquired. These were exported to Matlab(tm) and automated segmentation was performed to remove the tibia from its surrounding structures. Cross correlation was applied to co-register pairs of images and patterns of change in BMD were mapped using a t-test (p<0.05). Connected components of pixels with significant change in BMD were created and used to assess the impact of ACL injury & reconstruction on the proximal tibial BMD. Results. Prior to surgical ACL reconstruction, the BMD in the injured leg was significantly reduced relative to the control leg [S2: p=0.002, S3: p=0.002]. Post surgery, the proximal tibial BMD did not change in either leg [Control S2: p=0.102, S3: p=0.181; Injured S2: p=0.093, S3: p=0.439]. The post surgical images demonstrated patterns of increasing BMD surrounding the tunnel in the form of compact bone. Discussion. A significant reduction in proximal tibial BMD was observed in the ACL injured legs relative to control legs. The pattern of pre-operative bone loss was generally observed to be global across the entire slice. No change in BMD was observed following ACL reconstruction, in either injured or control leg. These results indicate that proximal tibial BMD is reduced and does not change after ACL reconstruction

Introduction. Tunnelwidening in failed anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) can result in the staged revision procedures with a need for bone transplantation prior to revision reconstruction. Limited knowledge exist regarding to quality of different transplantation methods. The present study used CT-scanning to evaluate tunnel bone density after allogenic bone chips and bone cylinder transplantation. We hypothesized that bone chips transplantation resulted in higher bone density than bone cylinder transplantation due to possible voids between individual cylinders in the tunnels. Methods. The records of 24 patients operated for 1st stage revision ACLR from April 2003 to march 2010 were included in the study. twelve patients had their tunnels transplanted with bone chips and twelve patients with bone cylinders from allogenic femoral heads. Bone chips were created by fine bone milling and cylinders were extracted by 7–8 mm core drilling. Bone density 3–4 months after transplantation were evaluated by CT scanning reconstruction slides with 5 mm intervals throughout the tunnel length using histomorphometry. Results. There were 15 females and 9 males with an average age of 32 yrs. Using bone chips the bone density in the tibial tunnels was 55% and the femoral tunnels the bone density was 68% Using bone cylinders bone density was 60% in the tibial tunnels and 53% in the femoral tunnels. The femoral bone density in the bone chip group was significantly higher than the bone cylinders (p < 0.05). Conclusion. Transplantation with bone chips results in superior bone quality in the femoral tunnels where as no difference where demonstrated in the tibial tunnels

Osteoarthritic (OA) changes to the bone morphology of the proximal tibia may exhibit load transfer patterns during total knee arthroplasty not predicted in models based on normal tibias. Prior work highlighted increased bone density in transverse sections of OA knees in the proximal-most 10mm tibial cancellous bone. Little is known about coronal plane differences, which could help inform load transfer from the tibial plateau to the tibial metaphysis. Therefore, we compared the cancellous bone density in OA and cadaveric (non-OA) subjects along a common coronal plane. This study included nine OA patients (five women, average age 59.1 ± 9.4 years) and 18 cadaver subjects (four women, average age 39.5 ± 14.4 years). Patients (eight with medial OA and one with lateral OA) received pre-operative CT scans as standard-of-care for a unicompartmental knee replacement. Cadavers were scanned at our institution and had no history of OA which was confirmed by gross inspection during dissection. 3D reconstructions of each proximal tibia were made and an ellipse was drawn on the medial and lateral plateau using a previously published method. A coronal section (Figure 1) to standardize the cohort was created using the medial ellipse center, lateral ellipse center, and the tibial shaft center 71.5mm from the tibial spine. On this section, profile lines were drawn from the medial and lateral ellipse centers, with data collected from the first subchondral bone pixel to a length of 20mm. The Hounsfield Units (HU) along each profile line was recorded for each tibia; a representative graphical distribution is shown in Figure 2. The Area Under the Curve (AUC) was calculated for the medial and lateral sides, which loosely described the stiffness profile through the region of interest. To determine differences between the medial and lateral subchondral bone density, the ratio AUC[medial] / AUC[lateral] was compared between the OA and cadaver cohorts using a two-sample t-test. Data from the sole lateral OA patient was mirror-imaged to be included in the OA cohort. The majority of the OA patients appeared to have higher subchondral bone density on the affected side. Figure 3 compares the medial and laterals sides of each group using the AUC ratio method described above. For the cadaver group the AUC was 1.2 +/− 0.22, with a median of 1.1 [0.9 1.6], smaller than the mean AUC for the OA group, which was 1.4 +/− 0.39, with a median of 1.6 [0.93 2.1]. The p-value was 0.06. The increased density observed in OA patients is consistent with asymmetric loading towards the affected plateau, resulting in localized remodeling of cancellous bone from the epiphysis to metaphysis. From the coronal plane, bone was often observed in OA patients bridging the medial plateau to the metaphyseal cortex. Although the cadaver subjects were normal from history and gross inspection, some subjects exhibited early bone density changes consistent with OA. Future work looks to review more OA scans, extend the work to the distal femur, and convert the HU values to bone elastic moduli for use in finite element modelling

Femoroacetabular impingement (FAI) results from a morphological deformity of the hip and is associated with osteoarthritis (OA). Increased bone mineral density (BMD) is observed in the antero-superior acetabulum rim where impingement occurs. It is hypothesized that the repeated abnormal contact leads to damage of the cartilage layer, but could also cause a bone remodelling response according to Wolff's Law. Thus the goal of this study was to assess the relationship between bone metabolic activity measured by PET and BMD measured in CT scans. Five participants with asymptomatic cam deformity, three patients with uni-lateral symptomatic cam FAI and three healthy controls were scanned in a 3T PET-MRI scanner following injection with [18F]NaF. Bone remodelling activity was quantified with Standard Uptake Values (SUVs). SUVmax was analyzed in the antero-superior acetabular rim, femoral head and head-neck junction. In these same regions, BMD was calculated from CT scans using the calibration phantom included in the scan. The relationship between SUVmax and BMD from corresponding regions was assessed using the coefficient of determination (R. 2. ) from linear regression. High bone activity was seen in the cam deformity and acetabular rim. SUVmax was negatively correlated with BMD in the antero-superior region of the acetabulum (R. 2. =0.30, p=0.08). SUVmax was positively correlated with BMD in the antero-superior head-neck junction of the femur (R. 2. =0.359, p=0.067). Correlations were weak in other regions. Elevated bone turnover was seen in patients with a cam deformity but the relationship to BMD was moderate. This study demonstrates a pathomechanism of hip degeneration associated with FAI deformities, consistent with Wolff's law and the proposed mechanical cause of hip degeneration in FAI. [18F]-NaF PET SUV may be a biomarker of degeneration, especially in early stages of degeneration, when joint preservation surgery is likely to be the most successful

We studied the bone density and bone mineral content of 14 men and 10 women over the age of 60 years who had sustained a femoral neck fracture as a result of minor trauma. They were matched for age and gender with controls from a peri-urban black population. Among the men, the femoral T and Z scores were significantly lower in the patients than in the controls. There were no significant differences among the female patient and control groups. In the controls, the mean bone densities were lower than in hologic white controls. The differences were not age-related. The black female controls also had lower bone densities than hologic white controls. These densities fell rapidly after the age of 50 years and this was age-related. As measured by their T scores, most of the patients were at risk for fractures

Introduction and purpose: The failure of a TKP is often due to deficiencies related to alignment, stability or fixation. The purpose of this paper is to determine how loads are distributed when each of two tibial stem models are implanted and to assess those loads densitometrically. Materials and methods: We analyzed 20 patients with a cemented TKR and divided them into two groups according to whether their tibial stem was cylindrical or cruciform. We studied the evolution of periprosthetic bone density under the internal and external bearings and under the stem. We performed a densitometry after 2 years postop and controls after 3 and 7 years. Results: In the cylindrical stem group the evolution of mean bone density under the internal bearing after 2 and 3 years was 0.92±0.20 to 0.90±0.19 g/cm2 respectively; mean bone density under the external bearing was 0.97±0.36 to 0.97±0.38 and under the stem it was 1.05±0.25 to 1.08±0.26. In the cruciform group, density under the internal bearing was 0.75±0.08 to 0.71±0.05, under the external one it was 0.89±0.01 to 0.85±0.07 and under the stem it was 1.06±0.06 to 1.04±0.29. In the long term (three patients were lost to follow-up), comparing the cylindrical prostheses to one another, we can say that the evolution under the internal bearing after 2, 3 and 7 years was 0.88, 0.84 and 0.80 g/cm2 respectively; under the external bearing it was 0.79, 0.78 and 0.77 and under the stem it was 0.99, 0.96 and 0.99. Conclusions: After TKR a progressive loss of bone density is observed. Comparatively, the reduction is greater in the cruciform stem. The internal compartment is the most affected one