Aims. The aim of this study was to report a complete overview of both incidence, fracture distribution, mode of injury, and patient baseline demographics of paediatric distal forearm fractures to identify age of risk and types of activities leading to injury. Methods. Population-based cohort study with manual review of radiographs and charts. The primary outcome measure was incidence of paediatric distal forearm fractures. The study was based on an average at-risk population of 116,950. A total number of 4,316 patients sustained a distal forearm fracture in the study period. Females accounted for 1,910 of the fractures (44%) and males accounted for 2,406 (56%). Results. The overall incidence of paediatric distal forearm fractures was 738.1/100,000 persons/year (95% confidence interval (CI) 706/100,000 to 770/100,000). Female incidences peaked with an incidence of 1,578.3/100,000 persons/year at age ten years. Male incidence peaked at age 13 years, with an incidence of 1,704.3/100,000 persons/year. The most common fracture type was a greenstick fracture to the radius (48%), and the most common modes of injury were sports and falls from ≤ 1 m. A small year-to-year variation was reported during the five-year study period, but without any trends. Conclusion. Results show that paediatric distal forearm fractures are very common throughout childhood in both sexes, with almost 2% of males aged 13 years sustaining a forearm fracture each year. Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2022;3(6):448–454

PURPOSE: Patients who sustain fall-related distal forearm fractures are at risk to sustain new fractures later in life. Risk factors for falls such as low physical activity, impaired gait and neuromuscular function, and comorbidity are well known, as well as risk factors for fractures such as female gender, old age, low body mass index (BMI) and low mobility. Fracture prevention is often directed toward bone mass density treatment, but there is evidence that high level of physical activity reduces falls and therefore also reduces fractures. Health related quality of life (HRQoL) has become an important additional measure. The aims of this study were to evaluate the HRQoL, reported with EQ-5D and SF-12, in women who had sustained fall-related distal forearm fracture one year earlier and compare with Swedish normative data, and to physical performance and self-reported comorbidity. PARTICIPANTS: Sixty women with a fall-related distal forearm fracture were invited to examine health-related quality of life and physical performance at a mean time of 13 months after they had sustained their fracture (S.D. 1.6, range 10–17). The inclusion criteria were that they should be able to perform the physical tests and to understand verbal and written Swedish. Forty three women (72%), mean age 68 (SD 8.4, range 50–84), agreed to participate. METHODS: The women filled in two generic HRQoL-questionnaires; EQ-5D and SF-12. They self-rated their physical activity and reported ailments, which were regularly examined by a doctor, and intake of prescribed medication. They reported problems or difficulties from the locomotor system and depressive symptoms during the three last months. All women underwent physical performance tests; handgrip strength, one leg standing (OLS) and walking speed. Fisher’s exact test, Mann Whitney U test and Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient were used in the statistical analyses. RESULTS: In the younger women (age 50–59) the HRQoL was lower compared to Swedish normative data. The EQ-5D index and VAS scores correlated moderately to the physical component summary (PCS-12) of the SF-12 (rs=0.73 and rs=0.69, respectively). The correlation to the mental component summary (MCS-12) of the SF-12 was lower (rs=0.32 and rs=0.22, respectively). Women who reported comorbidity and low physical activity scored lower in the corresponding items of health in both questionnaires. CONCLUSIONS: Low results in HRQoL questionnaires in apparently healthy older women with fall-related distal forearm fracture may indicate underlying comorbidity, not captured by physical performance tests. We suggest that HRQoL questionnaires should be used in additional to physical outcome measures for this patient group. The use of HRQoL questionnaires to find patients for preventive measures of falls and fractures should be further explored

The April 2024 Children’s orthopaedics Roundup. 360. looks at: Ultrasonography or radiography for suspected paediatric distal forearm fractures?; Implant density in scoliosis: an important variable?; Gait after paediatric femoral shaft fracture treated with intramedullary nail fixation: a longitudinal prospective study; The opioid dilemma: navigating pain management for children’s bone fractures; 12- to 20-year follow-up of Dega acetabuloplasty in patients with developmental dysplasia of the hip; Physeal fractures of the distal ulna: incidence and risk factors for premature growth arrest; Analysis of growth after transphyseal anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction in children; Management of lateral condyle humeral fracture associated with elbow dislocation in children: a retrospective international multicentre cohort study

Aims. The aim of this study was to describe the incidence of refractures among children, following fractures of all long bones, and to identify when the risk of refracture decreases. Methods. All patients aged under 16 years with a fracture that had occurred in a bone with ongoing growth (open physis) from 1 May 2015 to 31 December 2020 were retrieved from the Swedish Fracture Register. A new fracture in the same segment within one year of the primary fracture was regarded as a refracture. Fracture localization, sex, lateral distribution, and time from primary fracture to refracture were analyzed for all long bones. Results. Of 40,090 primary fractures, 348 children (0.88%) sustained a refracture in the same long bone segment. The diaphyseal forearm was the long bone segment most commonly affected by refractures (n = 140; 3.4%). The median time to refracture was 147 days (interquartile range 82 to 253) in all segments of the long bones combined. The majority of the refractures occurred in boys (n = 236; 67%), and the left side was the most common side to refracture (n = 220; 62%). The data in this study suggest that the risk of refracture decreases after 180 days in the diaphyseal forearm, after 90 days in the distal forearm, and after 135 days in the diaphyseal tibia. Conclusion. Refractures in children are rare. However, different fractured segments run a different threat of refracture, with the highest risk associated with diaphyseal forearm fractures. The data in this study imply that children who have sustained a distal forearm fracture should avoid hazardous activities for three months, while children with a diaphyseal forearm fracture should avoid these activities for six months, and for four and a half months if they have sustained a diaphyseal tibia fracture. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2023;105-B(8):928–934

Background: Distal forearm fractures are common in children. Many studies have described high failure rate when treated by closed reduction and immobilization in plaster cast. Loss of reduced position in the cast has been shown to be the most important factor leading to malunion and failure of the treatment. Treating these fractures by closed reduction and percutaneous Kirsch-ner (K-) wiring has been recommended. Objective: This study aims at determining the value of management of distal forearm fractures in children by closed reduction and percutaneous K-wiring in avoiding treatment failure and improving the final outcome. Material and methods: A series of 70 displaced distal forearm fractures in children was studied. These children were randomly allocated to one of two treatment groups: either manipulation and cast alone, or manipulation and percutaneous K-wiring with cast. Both groups were followed up until union occurred. Looking at the incidence of redisplacement, the radiological position at union, and the functional results four months after injury. Results: Redisplacement occurred in 8 out of 35 patients in the cast group (23%), compared to none in the K-wiring group (the difference was statistically significant).The quality of reduction was significantly better in the K-wire group, both initially and at union. Only 59 patients (84%) were reviewed 4 months after injury, none of the children in both groups had functional deficit

We undertook a prospective, single blinded, randomized, controlled trial of one hundred children treated with either an above or below elbow cast for treatment of closed, distal third forearm fractures requiring reduction. The re-manipulation rate in the below elbow group was 2% (95%CI: 0–11%) compared to 6% (95%CI: 2–15%) in the above elbow group, p=0.62. Above elbow casts do not appear to improve fracture immobilization nor reduce the requirement for re-manipulation in pediatric distal third forearm fractures. Debate exists regarding the benefits of using below elbow casts instead of above elbow casts for maintaining reduction in pediatric distal third forearm fractures. The literature indicates a loss of reduction rate of 14.6% of children treated in an above elbow cast and 2.5% in those treated with a below elbow cast. We undertook a prospective, single blinded, randomized, controlled trial of one hundred children treated with either an above or below elbow cast for treatment of closed, distal third forearm fractures requiring reduction. Outcome measures included re-manipulation rate, fracture displacement during cast wear, and cast complications. One hundred patients were suitably enrolled; fifty-four received an above elbow cast, forty-six received a below elbow cast. The two groups were similar in terms of age and gender. The above elbow group contained a higher proportion of both bone fractures (41/54) than the below elbow group (27/46). There were no significant differences between the two cast groups in initial, post-reduction or cast-off fracture angulation; nor any difference in the amount of fracture displacement during cast wear. The number of cast complications was similar between the two groups. The re-manipulation rate in the below elbow group was 2% (95%CI: 0–11%) compared to 6% (95%CI: 2–15%) in the above elbow group, p=0.62. Above elbow casts do not appear to improve fracture immobilization nor reduce the requirement for re-manipulation in pediatric distal third forearm fractures. Funding Hip Hip Hooray, Saskatoon

Introduction: The distal forearm is the most common fracture site in children. The stresses from a fall on the outstretched hand are prone to result on a physeal or metaphyseal fracture of the distal radius. Fortunately subsequent growth disturbance is unusual. Our aim is to report the advantages or disadvantages of the Kapandji method compared with the crossed pin fixation. Materials and Methods: We reviewed 29 children brought to the operating room for reduction and percutaneous fixation of distal forearm fractures during the last 18 months. There were 23 boys and 6 girls aging between 4 and 15 years old. Fractures were classified in four general types: physeal, torus, greenstick and complete. Sixteen fractures were fixed using the Kapandji technique and 13 were fixed with crossed pins. Results: All patients recovered full range of motion. None of the fractures required open reduction. Pinning using the Kapandji technique was easier and took about 50% less of the operating time. Nevertheless we found that there was no leading criteria to decide which were the fractures that would need pinning after reduction. There was an incidence of 10% of superficial infections that subsided after removal of the wires with no further complications in both methods. Conclusions and Discussion: Radial collapse, loss of wrist motion, and distal radioulnar joint dysfunction, all common problems associated with distal radius fractures in the adult, are rarely seen after children’s distal radial fractures. Closed reduction is usually easy. Although the final results were the same comparing crossed pin fixation and the Kapandji method, the later proved to be easier and less time consuming in the operating room. For this reason we favour this type of fixation for the distal forearm fractures in children

We treated 22 children with a supracondylar fracture of the humerus and an ipsilateral fracture of the forearm by closed reduction and percutaneous fixation. There were four Gartland type-II and 18 Gartland type-III supracondylar fractures of the humerus. There were fractures of both bones of the forearm in 16 and of the radius in six. Both the supracondylar and the distal forearm fractures were treated by closed reduction and percutaneous fixation. The mean follow-up time was 38.6 months. At the latest follow-up there were 21 excellent or good results and one fair result. There were no cases of delayed union, nonunion or malunion. Five nerve injuries were diagnosed on admission and all recovered spontaneously within eight weeks. No patient developed a compartment syndrome

Introduction. Two randomised trials concluded cast type (above or below elbow) makes no significant difference in the re-displacement rate of paediatric forearm fractures involving the distal third of the radius. This has not, however, led to the universal use of below elbow casts. In particular we noted one trial reported significant re-displacement in 40% or more of cases, which was much higher than we would expect. To review the radiological outcomes and need for re-manipulation of paediatric distal forearm fractures treated with closed manipulation under anaesthesia in our institution, in part for subsequent comparison with published results. All forearm fractures treated at a specialist children's hospital in one year were reviewed retrospectively. Based on the methodology of one trial, we included all fractures involving the distal third of the radius, with or without an ulna fracture, which underwent closed manipulation. Outcomes were radiological alignment using existing radiographs and need for re-manipulation. Cast type was at the discretion of the treating surgeon. The radiological criteria for re-displacement were based on published methodology. 79 children underwent manipulation, 71 receiving above elbow casts and 8 below elbow casts. Radiologically 21% of injuries treated in an above elbow cast re-displaced (15/71) compared to 38% of those in below elbow plasters (3/8). In 2 cases the re-displacement was treated with re-manipulation. The preference in our institution was clearly for above elbow casts in this injury pattern. The small number of below elbow casts in our series limits any comparisons. Our rate of re-displacement using above elbow casts was half that of one of the published studies, so the existing literature is not consistent with our experience

Introduction. Displaced distal radius fractures in children have been treated in above elbow plaster casts since the last century. Cast index has been calculated previously, which is a measure of the sagittal cast width divided by the coronal cast width measurement at the fracture site. This indicates how well the cast was moulded to the contours of the forearm. We retrospectively analysed the cast index in post manipulation radiographs to evaluate its relevance in redisplacement or reangulation of distal forearm fractures. Study Design. Consecutive radiographic analysis. Materials and methods. 156 consecutive paediatric patients (114M : 42F), with a mean age of 9.8 years (range 2-15 years), presenting with forearm fractures were studied. All patients were manipulated in OR and a moulded above elbow cast was applied. The cast index was measured on immediate post manipulation radiographs. Results. Displacement of the fracture within the original plaster cast occurred in 30 patients (19%), 22/114 males; 8/42 females. The cast index in the 30 patients requiring a second procedure (mean 0.92, SD=0.08) was significantly more than the cast index (mean 0.77, SD=0.07) in the others (p< .001). Discussion. A high cast index in post manipulation radiographs indicates increased risk of re-displacement of the fracture and these patients should be kept under close review. Conclusion. Cast index is a valuable tool to assess the quality of moulding of the cast following closed manipulation of distal radius fractures in children. The maximum acceptable cast index should be 0.82

Introduction: We aimed to assess a simple radiological method of predicting redisplacement of paediatric forearm fractures. The Cast Index (CI) is the ratio of sagittal to coronal width from the inside edges of the cast at the fracture site. A CI of > 0.7 was used as the standard in predicting fracture redisplacement. The cast index has previously been validated in an experimental study. Methods: Case records and radiographs of 1001 children who underwent a manipulation under general anaesthesia for a displaced fracture of the distal forearm were studied. Redisplacement was defined as more than 15 degrees of angulation and/or more than 80 percent of translational displacement on check radiographs at 2 weeks. Angulation (in degrees) and translation displacement (in percentage) were measured on the initial and check radiographs. The CI was measured on postoperative radiographs. Results: Fracture redisplacement was seen in 107 cases at 2 week follow up. Of the 752 patients (75%) with a CI of less than 0.7 the displacement rate was 5.58%. Of the 249 patients (25%) with a CI greater than 0.7 the redisplacement rate was 26%. The CI was significantly higher in the redisplacement group. No statistically significant difference was seen for age, sex or ethnicity. Nor were statistical differences noted in initial angular deformity, initial displacement and seniority of the surgeon. Good intra and inter observer reproducibility was observed. There was no statistical difference in patients with a cast index between 0.7 and 0.8. Conclusion: The cast index is a simple and reliable radiographic measurement to predict the redisplacement of forearm fractures in children. Previous studies have used a CI of > 0.7 as the predictor of redisplacement although this study suggests a plaster with a CI of < 0.81 is acceptable. A high cast index is associated with redisplacement of fractures and should therefore be considered when moulding casts in distal forearm fractures

Aims: The aim of this study was to evaluate the use of external þxation in Collesñ fracture.Methods: The history of all patients with distal forearm fracture (n=257) treated in Kuopio University Hospital during the year 1992 were studied. Radiographs of patients over 15 years of age treated with external þxation were studied (n=31), but only Collesñ fractures with dorsal angle (n=20) were cross-examined with a control group of conservatively treated randomly selected patients with a similar fracture (n=17). Radial shortening, dorsal angle and radial inclination were measured from the radiographs. Results: 70% and 22% of the fractures were intra-articular in external þxation (EF) and control (C) groups, respectively. The studied parameters at baseline were only a little bit (NS) worse in the EF group than in the control group. After reduction, the loss of radial length and inclination were corrected signiþcantly better using EF than in conservative treatment group. However, only radial inclination was maintained signiþcantly better in EF group after the immobilisation period (5–7 wk). There were less complications and functional problems reported in the conservatively treated patients (8% of all cases) than in the patients treated with external þxation (23%). However, worsening in the anatomical reduction during conservative treatment was reported in 22–27% of all cases. Conclusions: Only loss of radial length and inclination can be reduced signiþcantly better with external þxation than using conservative treatment. There seems to be no reason to use external þxation to reduce dorsal angle only. External þxation leads more often to complications than conservative treatment

We aimed to assess a simple radiological method of predicting redisplacement of paediatric forearm fractures. The Cast Index (CI) is the ratio of sagittal to coronal width from the inside edges of the cast at the fracture site. CI of 0.7 was used as the benchmark in predicting fracture redisplacement. Case records and radiographs of 1001 children who underwent a manipulation under general anaesthesia for a displaced fracture of the distal forearm were studied. Redisplacement was defined as more than 15 degrees of angulation and/or more than 80 percent of translational displacement on check radiographs at 2 weeks. Angulation (in degrees) and translation displacement (in percentage) were measured on the initial and check radiographs. The Cast index was measured on the check radiographs. Good intra and inter observer reproducibility was observed for both these measurements. The cast index has been previously validated in an experimental study. The adequacy of reduction after manipulation was estimated by the postreduction translation and angulation of the radius and ulna in anteroposterior and lateral plain film radiographs. The 1001 patients who qualified for the study, fracture redisplacement was seen in 107 cases at the all important two week follow up. Seven hundred and fifty-two patients had cast indices of 0.8 or less whilst 249 had casting indices of 0.81 or more. In patients with cast indices of 0.8 or less, the displacement rate was only 5.58%. However, in patients with cast indices of 0.81 or more, the displacement rate was 26%. Initial displacement, angulation and the post manipulation cast index were the three factors which were significantly higher in the redisplacement group. No statistically significant difference was seen for age, sex or ethnicity. Nor were statistical differences noted in initial angular deformity, initial displacement and seniority of the surgeon. There was no statistical difference in patients with cast indices between 0.7 and 0.8. Cast index is a simple reliable radiographic measurement to predict the redisplacement of forearm fractures in children. A plaster with a CI of > 0.81 is prone to redisplacement. A high cast index is associated with redisplacement of fractures and should therefore be considered when moulding casts is distal forearm fractures

Objective: Osteoporotic fractures of the distal forearm are demanding in terms of operative therapy and implants used. Volar fixed angle plating has become a standard procedure for these fractures. Recently intra-medullary nailing was introduced in clinical practice for the use in distal radial fractures. This randomized multi-center study compares both fixation techniques in terms of clinical and radiological outcome as well as quality of life score. Material and Methods: Up to now a total of 85 patients with extra- and intraarticular unstable fractures of the distal radius were included. 53 patients (Targon DR®, B. Braun-Aesculap: n=24; 2.4 mm plate, Synthes: n=29) completed the 6 months follow-up. Follow up examinations included an osteodensitometry using pQCT, X-ray analysis and a detailed clinical function examination. In addition the SF36 questionaire for quality of life assessment was carried out. Results: The operation time for volar plating was significantly longer than for intramedullary nailing (50.3±20.2 min versus 40.2±13.4 min), as was the time in hospital (5.4±1.8 days versus 2.2±0.6 days) (MW±SD; p< 0.05; Student-t-Test, post hoc: Bonferonni). The Gartland an Werley function score averaged 2.7±1.1 versus 1.9±0.8 for volar plating in comparision to treatment with the Targon DR® nail and thus just failed to reach statistical significance (p = 0.052). Radiological Evaluation revealed bony healing in all patients of both groups. Radial length was maintained in all but one patient (96%) in the nailing group and all but 2 patients (93%) in the plating group. A loss of volar tilt −5°was seen in 1 patient in the nailing group (4%) and 3 patients in the plating group (10%). Of interest radiological signs of bony healing developed much faster after intramedullary nailing. The Quality of life as measured by the SF36 was minimaly diminished in both groups (body/social function: Targon DR®: 56.3±25.1/63.4±21.2 points − 2.4 mm plate: 52.8±23.3/60.5±23.3 points). Osteoporotic bone loss was detected in a total of 72% of patients. Osteoporosis had no adverse effects on bony healing or functional parameters. We encountered two complications. One mild CRPS (volar plating) and in one case paraesthesia of the R. superficialis n. radialis (intramedullary nailing). Conclusion: Both intramedullary nailing with the Targon DR® nail and volar plating using a 2.4 mm volar fixed angle plate allows stable fixation of osteoporotic distal forearm fractures. Lower operation time and minimally invasive operative procedure of intramedullary nailing is accompanied by faster mobilization

Number one in frequency of all fractures in children is the distal forearm fracture. The most common green-stick fracture with minor or no dislocation is treated by short or long arm cast. Depending on the age 4 or six weeks of immobilization is sufficient. Displaced fractures of the distal radius and ulna are treated by closed reduction under general anaesthesia or lighter forms of analgesia. Reduction is followed by fixation in the “Schede position” (flexion, ulnar abduction) with obligatory change of cast after 10–14 days. Healing can be expected after 6 weeks. As an alternative percutaneous pinning of the reduced fracture allows immobilization in a short arm cast and without the the unpleasant flexion and ulnar abduction (. Voto et al 1990. , . Mani et al 1993. , . Gibbons et al 1994. , Choi et al 1959). There is currently a prospective randomised study running organized by Mr Clarke from Southampton, to the advantages and disadvantages after use of pins or abstaining from them apparent risks. For midshaft forearm fractures closed reduction and long arm cast immobilisation had been treatment of choice in the past. Remanipulation under anaesthesia because of lack of retention of both bone fractures have been common. Concerns came up mainly in the age group above 10 years with a high rate of unsatisfactory results (. Kay et al 1986. ). Plate fixation of both bones is a difficult procedure and causes damage to the interosseous membrane and can enhance rotatory deficits. In addition ugly scars are not unusual. Intramedullary nails seemed advantageous. (. Amit et al 1985. ). J.L. Morote and the Spanish school of Sevilla were the first to use a minimal invasive method of reduction and K-wire fixation of midshaft and proximal forearm fractures. (Perez-Sicilia et al 1977). The French group in Nancy and Metz had the some years later and developed their elastic stable intramedullary system for forearm fractures . Metaizeau 1988. , . Lascombes et al. 1990. ). A high rate of excellent outcomes and hardly any complications were observed. Intramedullary fixation with elastic stable nails even permits immediate motion (. Verstreken et al 1988. ). The surgical technique of Morote using blunt-ended 1,6 to 1,8 mm K-wires is described in “Operative Technique in Orthopaedics and Trauma” (. Parsch 1990. ) The results were confirmed by Kaye Wilkins (1996), . Luhmann et al 1998. , and . Richter et al 1998. An unacceptable high rate of complications was seen in groups, who used pins, which were not buried, who removed pins to early and before consolidation or who had fixed only one bone (. Cullen et al 1998. , . Shoemaker et al 1999. ). We recommend the intramedullary system for all displaced forearm fractures of children above 6 years until closure of the growth plate.(. Parsch 1990. ). The learning curve is short, the time of surgery an average of 40 minutes. The radiation exposure can be limited by the use of short impulse image intensifier. There is virtually no blood loss. With the learning curve more than 80 % can be fixed by closed means. Open reduction might be necessary in adolescents, or in delayed fracture care. Postoperative immobilisation is a plaster shell or brace is used for 2 weeks, this is not obligatory. Postoperative infections have not been observed after this minimal invasive method. Skin irritations can be avoided by complete bending of the K-wire ends. In unacceptable malunion after conservative treatment closed or open realignment of the fractures followed by intramedullary Morote pinning is the treatment of choice. Refractures may happen with wires in place shortly or a long time after removal of the hardware. They are not associated to the system, but rather to the fact that some children are subject to repeated falls, liable to break an arm. Acute Monteggia fractures have the radial head reduced conservatively, usually under general anaesthesia. (. Bado 1967. ). The ulnar fracture is reduced and than fixed by intramedullary K-wires (. Fowles et al 1983. ). In late reconstruction of Monteggia lesions we prefer plate fixation of ulna osteotomy

The aim of this study was to assess the usefulness of Cast index and an indigenously developed Gap index as measures of poor moulding of plaster. 20 cases of re-manipulation of distal third forearm fractures excluding growth plate injuries were compared with a control of 80 patients. 5 patients in the control group had an axial deviation of more than 10 degrees but were not remanipulated and therefore were included in the failure group. The gap index and the cast index of the two groups was compared as predictors of failure of conservative treatment. The groups were similar in terms of demography and post reduction alignment. There was a significant difference (< 0.001) in the Cast index and the Gap index of both the groups. The sensitivity of the Cast index (> 0.8) in predicting failure of plaster was 48% while that of the sum of Gap index (> 0.15) in AP & Lat view was 88%. Gap index was found to be more accurate (84%) than Cast index (78%) in predicting failure. The gap index is a better predictor of failure than the cast index. A quick assessment of these indices, especially by the less experienced surgeons, is a good practice before accepting any plaster following a manipulation of distal radial fractures. It would not only save the patient a second anaesthesia but also complications of a more extensive second procedure and of course hospital resources

We invited 1604 randomly selected women, all 75 years of age, to participate in a study on the risk factors for fracture. The women were divided into three groups consisting of 1044 (65%) who attended the complete study, 308 (19%) respondents to the study questionnaire only and 252 (16%) who did not respond. The occurrence of the life-time fracture was ascertained from radiological records in all groups and by questionnaires from the attendees and respondents.

According to the radiological records, fewer of the questionnaire respondents (88 of 308, 28.6%) and non-respondents (68 of 252, 27%) had sustained at least one fracture when compared with the attendees (435 of 1044, 41.7%; chi-squared test, p < 0.001). According to the questionnaire, fewer of the respondents (96 of 308, 31.1%) had sustained at least one previous fracture when compared with the attendees (457 of 1044, 43.7%; chi-squared test, p < 0.001).

Any study concerning the risk of fracture may attract those with experience of a fracture which explains the higher previous life-time incidence among the attendees. This factor may cause bias in epidemiological studies.

Redisplacement of unstable forearm fractures in plaster is common and may be the result of a number of factors. Little attention has been paid to the influence of immobilisation with the elbow extended versus flexed. We prospectively treated 111 consecutive children from two centres with closed forearm fractures by closed reduction and casting with the elbow either extended (60) in China or flexed (51) in Israel. We compared the outcome of the two groups. There was no statistically significant difference in the distribution of the age of the patients, the site of fracture or the amount of angulation and displacement between the groups. During the first two weeks after reduction, redisplacement occurred in no child immobilised with the elbow extended and nine of 51 children (17.6%) immobilised with the elbow flexed. Immobilisation of unstable forearm fractures with the elbow extended appears to be a safe and effective method of maintaining reduction.