Aims. The aim of the study was to apply 3D measurements for fracture displacement in minimally to moderately displaced acetabular fractures treated nonoperatively, and to evaluate whether this measurement can be used to estimate the likelihood of conversion to total hip arthroplasty (THA) at follow-up. Methods. A multicentre, cross-sectional study was performed on 144 patients who were treated nonoperatively for an acetabular fracture in four level 1 trauma centres between January 2000 and December 2020. For each patient, fracture displacement was measured on CT-based 3D models. The 3D gap area represents fracture displacement (mm. 2. ) between all fracture fragments. A receiver operating characteristic curve was generated to determine a 3D gap area threshold representing the optimal sensitivity and specificity to predict conversion to THA. Native hip survival was reported using Kaplan-Meier curves. Predictors of conversion to THA were determined using Cox regression analysis. Results. Of 144 patients, 18 (12%) received a THA. The median 3D gap area of the complete study cohort was 692 mm. 2. (IQR 216 to 1,400). Native hip survival in patients with a gap area threshold ≤ 1,171 or > 1,171 mm. 2. differed at one-year (98% vs 85%), two-year (96% vs 77%), and five-year follow-up (92% vs 73%). 3D gap area > 1,171 mm. 2. (hazard ratio (HR) 4.3; 95% CI 1.7 to 11.0) and the presence of osteoarthritis grade 2 or higher (HR 3.1; 95% CI 1.2 to 7.8) independently predicted the likelihood of conversion to THA during follow-up. Conclusion. For nonoperatively treated acetabular fractures, introducing 3D gap area assessment to measure fracture displacement offers a promising approach for assessing the risk of conversion to THA. With the introduction of (semi-)automatic segmentation and measurement techniques, or their implementation into commercially available software, this 3D gap area measurement can serve as an addition to the Letournel classification and an alternative to traditional 2D gap and step-off measurements, improving accuracy, reproducibility, and applicability in clinical decision-making. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2025;107-B(2):204–212

Aims. Proper preoperative planning benefits fracture reduction, fixation, and stability in tibial plateau fracture surgery. We developed and clinically implemented a novel workflow for 3D surgical planning including patient-specific drilling guides in tibial plateau fracture surgery. Methods. A prospective feasibility study was performed in which consecutive tibial plateau fracture patients were treated with 3D surgical planning, including patient-specific drilling guides applied to standard off-the-shelf plates. A postoperative CT scan was obtained to assess whether the screw directions, screw lengths, and plate position were performed according the preoperative planning. Quality of the fracture reduction was assessed by measuring residual intra-articular incongruence (maximum gap and step-off) and compared to a historical matched control group. Results. A total of 15 patients were treated with 3D surgical planning in which 83 screws were placed by using drilling guides. The median deviation of the achieved screw trajectory from the planned trajectory was 3.4° (interquartile range (IQR) 2.5 to 5.4) and the difference in entry points (i.e. plate position) was 3.0 mm (IQR 2.0 to 5.5) compared to the 3D preoperative planning. The length of 72 screws (86.7%) were according to the planning. Compared to the historical cohort, 3D-guided surgery showed an improved surgical reduction in terms of median gap (3.1 vs 4.7 mm; p = 0.126) and step-off (2.9 vs 4.0 mm; p = 0.026). Conclusion. The use of 3D surgical planning including drilling guides was feasible, and facilitated accurate screw directions, screw lengths, and plate positioning. Moreover, the personalized approach improved fracture reduction as compared to a historical cohort. Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2024;5(1):46–52

Aims. Morphological abnormalities are present in patients with developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH). We studied and compared the pelvic anatomy and morphology between the affected hemipelvis with the unaffected side in patients with unilateral Crowe type IV DDH using 3D imaging and analysis. Methods. A total of 20 patients with unilateral Crowe-IV DDH were included in the study. The contralateral side was considered normal in all patients. A coordinate system based on the sacral base (SB) in a reconstructed pelvic model was established. The pelvic orientations (tilt, rotation, and obliquity) of the affected side were assessed by establishing a virtual anterior pelvic plane (APP). The bilateral coordinates of the anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS) and the centres of hip rotation were established, and parameters concerning size and volume were compared for both sides of the pelvis. Results. The ASIS on the dislocated side was located inferiorly and anteriorly compared to the healthy side (coordinates on the y-axis and z-axis; p = 0.001; p = 0.031). The centre of hip rotation on the dislocated side was located inferiorly and medially compared to the healthy side (coordinates on the x-axis and the y-axis; p < 0.001; p = 0.003). The affected hemipelvis tilted anteriorly in the sagittal plane (mean 8.05° (SD 3.57°)), anteriorly rotated in the transverse plane (mean 3.31° (SD 1.41°)), and tilted obliquely and caudally in the coronal plane (mean 2.04° (SD 0.81°)) relative to the healthy hemipelvis. The affected hemipelvis was significantly smaller in the length, width, height, and volume than the healthy counterpart. (p = 0.014; p = 0.009; p = 0.035; p = 0.002). Conclusion. Asymmetric abnormalities were identified on the affected hemipelvis in patients with the unilateral Crowe-IV DDH using 3D imaging techniques. Improved understanding of the morphological changes may influence the positioning of the acetabular component at THA. Acetabular component malpositioning errors caused by anterior tilt of the affected hemi pelvis and the abnormal position of the affected side centre of rotation should be considered by orthopaedic surgeons when undertaking THA in patients with Crowe-IV DDH. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2020;102-B(10):1311–1318

Aims. Computer-assisted 3D preoperative planning software has the potential to improve postoperative stability in total hip arthroplasty (THA). Commonly, preoperative protocols simulate two functional positions (standing and relaxed sitting) but do not consider other common positions that may increase postoperative impingement and possible dislocation. This study investigates the feasibility of simulating commonly encountered positions, and positions with an increased risk of impingement, to lower postoperative impingement risk in a CT-based 3D model. Methods. A robotic arm-assisted arthroplasty planning platform was used to investigate 11 patient positions. Data from 43 primary THAs were used for simulation. Sacral slope was retrieved from patient preoperative imaging, while angles of hip flexion/extension, hip external/internal rotation, and hip abduction/adduction for tested positions were derived from literature or estimated with a biomechanical model. The hip was placed in the described positions, and if impingement was detected by the software, inspection of the impingement type was performed. Results. In flexion, an overall impingement rate of 2.3% was detected for flexed-seated, squatting, forward-bending, and criss-cross-sitting positions, and 4.7% for the ankle-over-knee position. In extension, most hips (60.5%) were found to impinge at or prior to 50° of external rotation (pivoting). Many of these impingement events were due to a prominent ischium. The mean maximum external rotation prior to impingement was 45.9° (15° to 80°) and 57.9° (20° to 90°) prior to prosthetic impingement. No impingement was found in standing, sitting, crossing ankles, seiza, and downward dog. Conclusion. This study demonstrated that positions of daily living tested in a CT-based 3D model show high rates of impingement. Simulating additional positions through 3D modelling is a low-cost method of potentially improving outcomes without compromising patient safety. By incorporating CT-based 3D modelling of positions of daily living into routine preoperative protocols for THA, there is the potential to lower the risk of postoperative impingement events. Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2023;4(6):416–423

Aims. The aim of this study was to establish a reliable method for producing 3D reconstruction of sonographic callus. Methods. A cohort of ten closed tibial shaft fractures managed with intramedullary nailing underwent ultrasound scanning at two, six, and 12 weeks post-surgery. Ultrasound capture was performed using infrared tracking technology to map each image to a 3D lattice. Using echo intensity, semi-automated mapping was performed to produce an anatomical 3D representation of the fracture site. Two reviewers independently performed 3D reconstructions and kappa coefficient was used to determine agreement. A further validation study was undertaken with ten reviewers to estimate the clinical application of this imaging technique using the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). Results. Nine of the ten patients achieved union at six months. At six weeks, seven patients had bridging callus of ≥ one cortex on the 3D reconstruction and when present all achieved union. Compared to six-week radiographs, no bridging callus was present in any patient. Of the three patients lacking sonographic bridging callus, one went onto a nonunion (77.8% sensitive and 100% specific to predict union). At 12 weeks, nine patients had bridging callus at ≥ one cortex on 3D reconstruction (100%-sensitive and 100%-specific to predict union). Presence of sonographic bridging callus on 3D reconstruction demonstrated excellent reviewer agreement on ICC at 0.87 (95% confidence interval 0.74 to 0.96). Conclusion. 3D fracture reconstruction can be created using multiple ultrasound images in order to evaluate the presence of bridging callus. This imaging modality has the potential to enhance the usability and accuracy of identification of early fracture healing. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2021;10(12):759–766

Aims. Although CT is considered the benchmark to measure femoral version, 3D biplanar radiography (hipEOS) has recently emerged as a possible alternative with reduced exposure to ionizing radiation and shorter examination time. The aim of our study was to evaluate femoral stem version in postoperative total hip arthroplasty (THA) patients and compare the accuracy of hipEOS to CT. We hypothesize that there will be no significant difference in calculated femoral stem version measurements between the two imaging methods. Methods. In this study, 45 patients who underwent THA between February 2016 and February 2020 and had both a postoperative CT and EOS scan were included for evaluation. A fellowship-trained musculoskeletal radiologist and radiological technician measured femoral version for CT and 3D EOS, respectively. Comparison of values for each imaging modality were assessed for statistical significance. Results. Comparison of the mean postoperative femoral stem version measurements between CT and 3D hipEOS showed no significant difference (p = 0.862). In addition, the two version measurements were strongly correlated (r = 0.95; p < 0.001), and the mean paired difference in postoperative femoral version for CT scan and 3D biplanar radiography was -0.09° (95% confidence interval -1.09 to 0.91). Only three stem measurements (6.7%) were considered outliers with a > 5° difference. Conclusion. Our study supports the use of low-dose biplanar radiography for the postoperative assessment of femoral stem version after THA, demonstrating high correlation with CT. We found no significant difference for postoperative femoral version when comparing CT to 3D EOS. We believe 3D EOS is a reliable option to measure postoperative femoral version given its advantages of lower radiation dosage and shorter examination time. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2022;104-B(11):1196–1201

Aims. The objective of this study is to assess the use of ultrasound (US) as a radiation-free imaging modality to reconstruct 3D anatomy of the knee for use in preoperative templating in knee arthroplasty. Methods. Using an US system, which is fitted with an electromagnetic (EM) tracker that is integrated into the US probe, allows 3D tracking of the probe, femur, and tibia. The raw US radiofrequency (RF) signals are acquired and, using real-time signal processing, bone boundaries are extracted. Bone boundaries and the tracking information are fused in a 3D point cloud for the femur and tibia. Using a statistical shaping model, the patient-specific surface is reconstructed by optimizing bone geometry to match the point clouds. An accuracy analysis was conducted for 17 cadavers by comparing the 3D US models with those created using CT. US scans from 15 users were compared in order to examine the effect of operator variability on the output. Results. The results revealed that the US bone models were accurate compared with the CT models (root mean squared error (RM)S: femur, 1.07 mm (SD 0.15); tibia, 1.02 mm (SD 0.13). Additionally, femoral landmarking proved to be accurate (transepicondylar axis: 1.07° (SD 0.65°); posterior condylar axis: 0.73° (SD 0.41°); distal condylar axis: 0.96° (SD 0.89°); medial anteroposterior (AP): 1.22 mm (SD 0.69); lateral AP: 1.21 mm (SD 1.02)). Tibial landmarking errors were slightly higher (posterior slope axis: 1.92° (SD 1.31°); and tubercle axis: 1.91° (SD 1.24°)). For implant sizing, 90% of the femora and 60% of the tibiae were sized correctly, while the remainder were only one size different from the required implant size. No difference was observed between moderate and skilled users. Conclusion. The 3D US bone models were proven to be closely matched compared with CT and suitable for preoperative planning. The 3D US is radiation-free and offers numerous clinical opportunities for bone visualization rapidly during clinic visits, to enable preoperative planning with implant sizing. There is potential to extend its application to 3D dynamic ligament balancing, and intraoperative registration for use with robots and navigation systems. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2021;103-B(6 Supple A):81–86

Aims. The use of 3D printing has become increasingly popular and has been widely used in orthopaedic surgery. There has been a trend towards an increasing number of publications in this field, but existing literature incorporates limited high-quality studies, and there is a lack of reports on outcomes. The aim of this study was to perform a scoping review with Level I evidence on the application and effectiveness of 3D printing. Methods. A literature search was performed in PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science databases. The keywords used for the search criteria were ((3d print*) OR (rapid prototyp*) OR (additive manufactur*)) AND (orthopaedic). The inclusion criteria were: 1) use of 3D printing in orthopaedics, 2) randomized controlled trials, and 3) studies with participants/patients. Risk of bias was assessed with Cochrane Collaboration Tool and PEDro Score. Pooled analysis was performed. Results. Overall, 21 studies were included in our study with a pooled total of 932 participants. Pooled analysis showed that operating time (p < 0.001), blood loss (p < 0.001), fluoroscopy times (p < 0.001), bone union time (p < 0.001), pain (p = 0.040), accuracy (p < 0.001), and functional scores (p < 0.001) were significantly improved with 3D printing compared to the control group. There were no significant differences in complications. Conclusion. 3D printing is a rapidly developing field in orthopaedics. Our findings show that 3D printing is advantageous in terms of operating time, blood loss, fluoroscopy times, bone union time, pain, accuracy, and function. The use of 3D printing did not increase the risk of complications. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2021;10(12):807–819

Aims. Tibial plateau fractures (TPFs) are complex injuries around the knee caused by high- or low-energy trauma. In the present study, we aimed to define the distribution and frequency of TPF lines using a 3D mapping technique and analyze the rationalization of divisions employed by frequently used classifications. Methods. In total, 759 adult patients with 766 affected knees were retrospectively reviewed. The TPF fragments on CT were multiplanar reconstructed, and virtually reduced to match a 3D model of the proximal tibia. 3D heat mapping was subsequently created by graphically superimposing all fracture lines onto a tibia template. Results. The cohort included 405 (53.4%) cases with left knee injuries, 347 (45.7%) cases with right knee injuries, and seven (0.9%) cases with bilateral injuries. On mapping, the hot zones of the fracture lines were mainly concentrated around the anterior cruciate ligament insertion, posterior cruciate ligament insertion, and the inner part of the lateral condyle that extended to the junctional zone between Gerdy’s tubercle and the tibial tubercle. Moreover, the cold zones were scattered in the posteromedial fragment, superior tibiofibular syndesmosis, Gerdy’s tubercle, and tibial tubercle. TPFs with different Orthopaedic Trauma Association/AO Foundation (OTA/AO) subtypes showed peculiar characteristics. Conclusion. TPFs occurred more frequently in the lateral and intermedial column than in the medial column. Fracture lines of tibial plateau occur frequently in the transition zone with marked changes in cortical thickness. According to 3D mapping, the four-column and nine-segment classification had a high degree of matching as compared to the frequently used classifications. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2020;9(6):258–267

Aims. This study addressed two questions: first, does surgical correction of an idiopathic scoliosis increase the volume of the rib cage, and second, is it possible to evaluate the change in lung function after corrective surgery for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) using biplanar radiographs of the ribcage with 3D reconstruction?. Methods. A total of 45 patients with a thoracic AIS which needed surgical correction and fusion were included in a prospective study. All patients underwent pulmonary function testing (PFT) and low-dose biplanar radiographs both preoperatively and one year after surgery. The following measurements were recorded: forced vital capacity (FVC), slow vital capacity (SVC), and total lung capacity (TLC). Rib cage volume (RCV), maximum rib hump, main thoracic curve Cobb angle (MCCA), medial-lateral and anteroposterior diameter, and T4-T12 kyphosis were calculated from 3D reconstructions of the biplanar radiographs. Results. All spinal and thoracic measurements improved significantly after surgery (p < 0.001). RCV increased from 4.9 l (SD 1) preoperatively to 5.3 l (SD 0.9) (p < 0.001) while TLC increased from 4.1 l (SD 0.9) preoperatively to 4.3 l (SD 0.8) (p < 0.001). RCV was correlated with all functional indexes before and after correction of the deformity. Improvement in RCV was weakly correlated with correction of the mean thoracic Cobb angle (p = 0.006). The difference in TLC was significantly correlated with changes in RCV (p = 0.041). It was possible to predict postoperative TLC from the postoperative RCV. Conclusion. 3D rib cage assessment from biplanar radiographs could be a minimally invasive method of estimating pulmonary function before and after spinal fusion in patients with an AIS. The 3D RCV reflects virtual chest capacity and hence pulmonary function in this group of patients. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2022;104-B(1):112–119

Aims. This systematic review aims to identify 3D predictors derived from biplanar reconstruction, and to describe current methods for improving curve prediction in patients with mild adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Methods. A comprehensive search was conducted by three independent investigators on MEDLINE, PubMed, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library. Search terms included “adolescent idiopathic scoliosis”,“3D”, and “progression”. The inclusion and exclusion criteria were carefully defined to include clinical studies. Risk of bias was assessed with the Quality in Prognostic Studies tool (QUIPS) and Appraisal tool for Cross-Sectional Studies (AXIS), and level of evidence for each predictor was rated with the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluations (GRADE) approach. In all, 915 publications were identified, with 377 articles subjected to full-text screening; overall, 31 articles were included. Results. Torsion index (TI) and apical vertebral rotation (AVR) were identified as accurate predictors of curve progression in early visits. Initial TI > 3.7° and AVR > 5.8° were predictive of curve progression. Thoracic hypokyphosis was inconsistently observed in progressive curves with weak evidence. While sagittal wedging was observed in mild curves, there is insufficient evidence for its correlation with curve progression. In curves with initial Cobb angle < 25°, Cobb angle was a poor predictor for future curve progression. Prediction accuracy was improved by incorporating serial reconstructions in stepwise layers. However, a lack of post-hoc analysis was identified in studies involving geometrical models. Conclusion. For patients with mild curves, TI and AVR were identified as predictors of curve progression, with TI > 3.7° and AVR > 5.8° found to be important thresholds. Cobb angle acts as a poor predictor in mild curves, and more investigations are required to assess thoracic kyphosis and wedging as predictors. Cumulative reconstruction of radiographs improves prediction accuracy. Comprehensive analysis between progressive and non-progressive curves is recommended to extract meaningful thresholds for clinical prognostication. Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2024;5(3):243–251

Aims

Ganz’s studies made it possible to address joint deformities on both the femoral and acetabular side brought about by Perthes’ disease. Femoral head reduction osteotomy (FHRO) was developed to improve joint congruency, along with periacetabular osteotomy (PAO), which may enhance coverage and containment. The purpose of this study is to show the clinical and morphological outcomes of the technique and the use of an implemented planning approach.

Objectives. Meniscal injuries are often associated with an active lifestyle. The damage of meniscal tissue puts young patients at higher risk of undergoing meniscal surgery and, therefore, at higher risk of osteoarthritis. In this study, we undertook proof-of-concept research to develop a cellularized human meniscus by using 3D bioprinting technology. Methods. A 3D model of bioengineered medial meniscus tissue was created, based on MRI scans of a human volunteer. The Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine (DICOM) data from these MRI scans were processed using dedicated software, in order to obtain an STL model of the structure. The chosen 3D Discovery printing tool was a microvalve-based inkjet printhead. Primary mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) were isolated from bone marrow and embedded in a collagen-based bio-ink before printing. LIVE/DEAD assay was performed on realized cell-laden constructs carrying MSCs in order to evaluate cell distribution and viability. Results. This study involved the realization of a human cell-laden collagen meniscus using 3D bioprinting. The meniscus prototype showed the biological potential of this technology to provide an anatomically shaped, patient-specific construct with viable cells on a biocompatible material. Conclusion. This paper reports the preliminary findings of the production of a custom-made, cell-laden, collagen-based human meniscus. The prototype described could act as the starting point for future developments of this collagen-based, tissue-engineered structure, which could aid the optimization of implants designed to replace damaged menisci. Cite this article: G. Filardo, M. Petretta, C. Cavallo, L. Roseti, S. Durante, U. Albisinni, B. Grigolo. Patient-specific meniscus prototype based on 3D bioprinting of human cell-laden scaffold. Bone Joint Res 2019;8:101–106. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.82.BJR-2018-0134.R1

Aims. Dislocation of the hip remains a major complication after periacetabular tumour resection and endoprosthetic reconstruction. The position of the acetabular component is an important modifiable factor for surgeons in determining the risk of postoperative dislocation. We investigated the significance of horizontal, vertical, and sagittal displacement of the hip centre of rotation (COR) on postoperative dislocation using a CT-based 3D model, as well as other potential risk factors for dislocation. Methods. A total of 122 patients who underwent reconstruction following resection of periacetabular tumour between January 2011 and January 2020 were studied. The risk factors for dislocation were investigated with univariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis on patient-specific, resection-specific, and reconstruction-specific variables. Results. The dislocation rate was 13.9% (n = 17). The hip COR was found to be significantly shifted anteriorly and inferiorly in most patients in the dislocation group compared with the non-dislocation group. Three independent risk factors were found to be related to dislocation: resection of gluteus medius (odds ratio (OR) 3.68 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.24 to 19.70); p = 0.039), vertical shift of COR > 18 mm (OR 24.8 (95% CI 6.23 to 128.00); p = 0.001), and sagittal shift of COR > 20 mm (OR 6.22 (95% CI 1.33 to 32.2); p = 0.026). Conclusion. Among the 17 patients who dislocated, 70.3% (n = 12) were anterior dislocations. Three independent risk factors were identified, suggesting the importance of proper restoration of the COR and the role of the gluteus medius in maintaining hip joint stability. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2022;104-B(10):1180–1188

Objectives. Bone tissue engineering is one of the fastest growing branches in modern bioscience. New methods are being developed to achieve higher grades of mineral deposition by osteogenically inducted mesenchymal stem cells. In addition to well established monolayer cell culture models, 3D cell cultures for stem cell-based osteogenic differentiation have become increasingly attractive to promote in vivo bone formation. One of the main problems of scaffold-based osteogenic cell cultures is the difficulty in quantifying the amount of newly produced extracellular mineral deposition, as a marker for new bone formation, without destroying the scaffold. In recent studies, we were able to show that . 99m. Tc-methylene diphosphonate (. 99m. Tc-MDP), a gamma radiation-emitting radionuclide, can successfully be applied as a reliable quantitative marker for mineral deposition as this tracer binds with high affinity to newly produced hydroxyapatite (HA). Methods. Within the present study, we evaluated whether this promising new method, using . 99m. Tc-hydroxydiphosphonate (. 99m. Tc-HDP), can be used to quantify the amount of newly formed extracellular HA in a 3D cell culture model. Highly porous collagen type II scaffolds were seeded with 1 × 106 human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs; n = 6) and cultured for 21 days in osteogenic media (group A – osteogenic (OSM) group) and in parallel in standard media (group B – negative control (CNTRL) group). After incubation with . 99m. Tc-HDP, the tracer uptake, reflected by the amount of emitted gamma counts, was measured. Results. We saw a higher uptake (up to 15-fold) of the tracer in the OSM group A compared with the CNTRL group B. Statistical analysis of the results (Student`s t-test) revealed a significantly higher amount of emitted gamma counts in the OSM group (p = 0.048). Qualitative and semi-quantitative analysis by Alizarin Red staining confirmed the presence of extracellular HA deposition in the OSM group. Conclusion. Our data indicate that . 99m. Tc-HDP labelling is a promising tool to track and quantify non-destructive local HA deposition in 3D stem cell cultures. Cite this article: T. L. Grossner, U. Haberkorn, T. Gotterbarm. . 99m. Tc-Hydroxydiphosphonate quantification of extracellular matrix mineralization in 3D human mesenchymal stem cell cultures. Bone Joint Res 2019;8:333–341. doi: 10.1302/2046-3758.87.BJR-2017-0248.R1

The COVID-19 pandemic creates unique challenges in the practice of spinal surgery. We aim to show how the use of a high-definition 3D digital exoscope can help streamline workflows, and protect both patients and healthcare staff

Aims. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the biological fixation of a 3D printed porous implant, with and without different hydroxyapatite (HA) coatings, in a canine model. Materials and Methods. A canine transcortical model was used to evaluate the characteristics of bone ingrowth of Ti6Al4V cylindrical implants fabricated using laser rapid manufacturing (LRM). At four and 12 weeks post-implantation, we performed histological analysis and mechanical push-out testing on three groups of implants: a HA-free control (LRM), LRM with precipitated HA (LRM-PA), and LRM with plasma-sprayed HA (LRM-PSHA). Results. Substantial bone ingrowth was observed in all LRM implants, with and without HA, at both time periods. Bone ingrowth increased from 42% to 52% at four weeks, to 60% to 65% at 12 weeks. Mechanical tests indicated a minimum shear fixation strength of 20 MPa to 24 MPa at four weeks, and 34 MPa to 40 MPa at 12 weeks. There was no significant difference in the amount of bone ingrowth or in the shear strength between the three implant types at either time period. Conclusion. At four and 12 weeks, the 3D printed porous implants exhibited consistent bone ingrowth and high mechanical shear strength. Based on the results of this study, we confirmed the suitability of this novel new additive manufacturing porous material for biological fixation by bone ingrowth. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2019;101-B(6 Supple B):62–67

Aims. The aims of this study were to evaluate the morphology of the ankle in patients with an osteochondral lesion of the talus using 3D CT, and to investigate factors that predispose to this condition. Patients and Methods. The study involved 19 patients (19 ankles) who underwent surgery for a medial osteochondral lesion (OLT group) and a control group of 19 healthy patients (19 ankles) without ankle pathology. The mean age was significantly lower in the OLT group than in the control group (27.0 vs 38.9 years; p = 0.02). There were 13 men and six women in each group. 3D CT models of the ankle were made based on Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine (DICOM) data. The medial malleolar articular and tibial plafond surface, and the medial and lateral surface area of the trochlea of the talus were defined. The tibial axis-medial malleolus (TMM) angle, the medial malleolar surface area and volume (MMA and MMV) and the anterior opening angle of the talus were measured. Results. The mean TMM angle was significantly larger in the OLT group (34.2°, . sd. 4.4°) than in the control group (29.2°, . sd. 4.8°; p = 0.002). The mean MMA and MMV were significantly smaller in the OLT group than in the control group (219.8 mm. 2. , . sd. 42.4) vs (280.5 mm. 2. , . sd. 38.2), and (2119.9 mm. 3. , . sd. 562.5) vs (2646.4 mm. 3. , . sd. 631.4; p < 0.01 and p = 0.01, respectively). The mean anterior opening angle of the talus was significantly larger in the OLT group than in the control group (15.4°, . sd. 3.9°) vs (10.2°, . sd. 3.6°; p < 0.001). Conclusion. 3D CT measurements showed that, in patients with a medial osteochondral lesion of the talus, the medial malleolus opens distally, the MMA and MMV are small, and the anterior opening angle of the talus is large. This suggests that abnormal morphology of the ankle predisposes to the development of osteochondral lesions of the talus. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2018;100-B:1487–90

Aims. The aim of this study was to analyse the effect of altered viewing perspectives on the measurement of the glenopolar angle (GPA) and the differences between these measurements made on 3D CT reconstructions and anteroposterior (AP) scapular view radiographs. . Materials and Methods. The influence of the viewing perspective on the GPA was assessed, as were the differences in the measurements of the GPA between 3D CT reconstructions and AP scapular view radiographs in 68 cadaveric scapulae. Results. The median GPA in 3D reconstructions and AP scapular views were 42.7° (95% confidence intervals (CI), 42.0° to 43.5°) and 41.3° (95% CI 40.4° to 42.0°) respectively (p < 0.001). All but five of 20 malpositions demonstrated a significant difference in GPA compared with the respective AP scapular view (p ≤ 0.005). The GPA was most susceptible to malposition in retroversion/anteversion. Inter- and intra-observer reliability for all measurements of the GPA was excellent for 3D CT reconstructions (intraclass correlation (ICC) 0.93 (95% CI 0.87 to 0.96) and 0.94 (95% CI 0.89 to 0.97), respectively) and higher than on AP scapular radiographs (p < 0.001). The intra- and inter-observer reliability was excellent in AP scapular views and malpositions in extension/flexion (ICC ≥ 0.84) but tended to decrease with increasing viewing angle in retroversion/anteversion. Conclusion. These data suggest that 3D reconstructions are more reproducible than AP scapular radiographs in the assessment of the GPA and should be used to compare data in different studies, to predict outcome, define malunion, and act as an indication for surgery in patients with a scapular fracture. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2016;98-B:1510–16

Aims. Restoring the pre-morbid anatomy of the proximal humerus is a goal of anatomical shoulder arthroplasty, but reliance is placed on the surgeon’s experience and on anatomical estimations. The purpose of this study was to present a novel method, ‘Statistical Shape Modelling’, which accurately predicts the pre-morbid proximal humeral anatomy and calculates the 3D geometric parameters needed to restore normal anatomy in patients with severe degenerative osteoarthritis or a fracture of the proximal humerus. Materials and Methods. From a database of 57 humeral CT scans 3D humeral reconstructions were manually created. The reconstructions were used to construct a statistical shape model (SSM), which was then tested on a second set of 52 scans. For each humerus in the second set, 3D reconstructions of four diaphyseal segments of varying lengths were created. These reconstructions were chosen to mimic severe osteoarthritis, a fracture of the surgical neck of the humerus and a proximal humeral fracture with diaphyseal extension. The SSM was then applied to the diaphyseal segments to see how well it predicted proximal morphology, using the actual proximal humeral morphology for comparison. Results. With the metaphysis included, mimicking osteoarthritis, the errors of prediction for retroversion, inclination, height, radius of curvature and posterior and medial offset of the head of the humerus were 2.9° (± 2.3°), 4.0° (± 3.3°), 1.0 mm (± 0.8 mm), 0.8 mm (± 0.6 mm), 0.7 mm (± 0.5 mm) and 1.0 mm (± 0.7 mm), respectively. With the metaphysis excluded, mimicking a fracture of the surgical neck, the errors of prediction for retroversion, inclination, height, radius of curvature and posterior and medial offset of the head of the humerus were 3.8° (± 2.9°), 3.9° (± 3.4°), 2.4 mm (± 1.9 mm), 1.3 mm (± 0.9 mm), 0.8 mm (± 0.5 mm) and 0.9 mm (± 0.6 mm), respectively. Conclusion. This study reports a novel, computerised method that accurately predicts the pre-morbid proximal humeral anatomy even in challenging situations. This information can be used in the surgical planning and operative reconstruction of patients with severe degenerative osteoarthritis or with a fracture of the proximal humerus. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2017;99-B:927–33

Objectives. To assess the accuracy of patient-specific instruments (PSIs) versus standard manual technique and the precision of computer-assisted planning and PSI-guided osteotomies in pelvic tumour resection. Methods. CT scans were obtained from five female cadaveric pelvises. Five osteotomies were designed using Mimics software: sacroiliac, biplanar supra-acetabular, two parallel iliopubic and ischial. For cases of the left hemipelvis, PSIs were designed to guide standard oscillating saw osteotomies and later manufactured using 3D printing. Osteotomies were performed using the standard manual technique in cases of the right hemipelvis. Post-resection CT scans were quantitatively analysed. Student’s t-test and Mann–Whitney U test were used. Results. Compared with the manual technique, PSI-guided osteotomies improved accuracy by a mean 9.6 mm (p < 0.008) in the sacroiliac osteotomies, 6.2 mm (p < 0.008) and 5.8 mm (p < 0.032) in the biplanar supra-acetabular, 3 mm (p < 0.016) in the ischial and 2.2 mm (p < 0.032) and 2.6 mm (p < 0.008) in the parallel iliopubic osteotomies, with a mean linear deviation of 4.9 mm (p < 0.001) for all osteotomies. Of the manual osteotomies, 53% (n = 16) had a linear deviation > 5 mm and 27% (n = 8) were > 10 mm. In the PSI cases, deviations were 10% (n = 3) and 0 % (n = 0), respectively. For angular deviation from pre-operative plans, we observed a mean improvement of 7.06° (p < 0.001) in pitch and 2.94° (p < 0.001) in roll, comparing PSI and the standard manual technique. Conclusion. In an experimental study, computer-assisted planning and PSIs improved accuracy in pelvic tumour resections, bringing osteotomy results closer to the parameters set in pre-operative planning, as compared with standard manual techniques. Cite this article: A. Sallent, M. Vicente, M. M. Reverté, A. Lopez, A. Rodríguez-Baeza, M. Pérez-Domínguez, R. Velez. How 3D patient-specific instruments improve accuracy of pelvic bone tumour resection in a cadaveric study. Bone Joint Res 2017;6:577–583. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.610.BJR-2017-0094.R1

Objective. The objective of this study was to evaluate the rotation and translation of each joint in the hindfoot and compare the load response in healthy feet with that in stage II posterior tibial tendon dysfunction (PTTD) flatfoot by analysing the reconstructive three-dimensional (3D) computed tomography (CT) image data during simulated weight-bearing. . Methods. CT scans of 15 healthy feet and 15 feet with stage II PTTD flatfoot were taken first in a non-weight-bearing condition, followed by a simulated full-body weight-bearing condition. The images of the hindfoot bones were reconstructed into 3D models. The ‘twice registration’ method in three planes was used to calculate the position of the talus relative to the calcaneus in the talocalcaneal joint, the navicular relative to the talus in talonavicular joint, and the cuboid relative to the calcaneus in the calcaneocuboid joint. Results. From non- to full-body-weight-bearing condition, the difference in the talus position relative to the calcaneus in the talocalcaneal joint was 0.6° more dorsiflexed (p = 0.032), 1.4° more everted (p = 0.026), 0.9 mm more anterior (p = 0.031) and 1.0 mm more proximal (p = 0.004) in stage II PTTD flatfoot compared with that in a healthy foot. The navicular position difference relative to the talus in the talonavicular joint was 3° more everted (p = 0.012), 1.3 mm more lateral (p = 0.024), 0.8 mm more anterior (p = 0.037) and 2.1 mm more proximal (p = 0.017). The cuboid position difference relative to the calcaneus in the calcaneocuboid joint did not change significantly in rotation and translation (all p ≥ 0.08). . Conclusion. Referring to a previous study regarding both the cadaveric foot and the live foot, joint instability occurred in the hindfoot in simulated weight-bearing condition in patients with stage II PTTD flatfoot. The method used in this study might be applied to clinical analysis of the aetiology and evolution of PTTD flatfoot, and may inform biomechanical analyses of the effects of foot surgery in the future. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2013;2:255–63

We have investigated the benefits of patient specific instrument guides, applied to osteotomies around the knee. Single, dual and triple planar osteotomies were performed on tibias or femurs in 14 subjects. In all patients, a detailed pre-operative plan was prepared based upon full leg standing radiographic and CT scan information. The planned level of the osteotomy and open wedge resection was relayed to the surgery by virtue of a patient specific guide developed from the images. The mean deviation between the planned wedge angle and the executed wedge angle was 0° (-1 to 1, sd 0.71) in the coronal plane and 0.3° (-0.9 to 3, sd 1.14) in the sagittal plane. The mean deviation between the planned hip, knee, ankle angle (HKA) on full leg standing radiograph and the post-operative HKA was 0.3° (-1 to 2, sd 0.75). It is concluded that this is a feasible and valuable concept from the standpoint of pre-operative software based planning, surgical application and geometrical accuracy of outcome.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B, Supple A:153–8.

Objective

Excessive mechanical stress on synovial joints causes osteoarthritis (OA) and results in the production of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), a key molecule in arthritis, by synovial fibroblasts. However, the relationship between arthritis-related molecules and mechanical stress is still unclear. The purpose of this study was to examine the synovial fibroblast response to cyclic mechanical stress using an in vitro osteoarthritis model.

Aims. Complex elbow fracture-dislocations often result in suboptimal outcomes and necessitate a thorough understanding of injury patterns to guide effective management and reduce adverse sequelae. The Wrightington Classification System (WCS) offers a comprehensive approach and considers both bony and soft-tissue disruption, providing clearer guidance for treatment. This is the first external study to assess the reliability of the WCS for elbow fracture-dislocations. Methods. A blinded study of patients with elbow fracture-dislocations at a single institution between December 2014 and December 2022 was conducted. Five assessors with a range of experience, including orthopaedic surgeons and radiologists, independently classified injuries using the WCS across three image methods: plain radiograph, 2D CT, and 2D and 3D CT reconstruction images, on two occasions with an eight-week interval. Interobserver and intraobserver reliability were evaluated using kappa statistics and the Landis and Koch criteria. Results. A total of 73 patients were included in the study. Interobserver reliability was moderate, with mean kappa values of 0.518 (95% CI 0.499 to 0.537), 0.557 (95% CI 0.537 to 0.577), and 0.582 (95% CI 0.562 to 0.601), for radiographs, 2D CT, and 2D and 3D CT reconstructions, respectively. Intraobserver agreement was substantial (mean kappa 0.695 (SE 0.067), 0.729 (SE 0.071), and 0.777 (SE 0.070) for radiographs, 2D CT, and 3D CT reconstructions, respectively). Conclusion. The WCS is a reliable and valuable tool for characterizing elbow fracture-dislocations and guiding surgical interventions. This study found moderate reliability in using the WCS, with higher reliability with combined 2D and 3D CT imaging. Further refinement within the WCS in differentiating between coronoid avulsions, basal, anteromedial, and/or anterolateral facet injuries may help improve reliability and reproducibility. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2025;107-B(2):188–192

Advanced 3D imaging and CT-based navigation have emerged as valuable tools to use in total knee arthroplasty (TKA), for both preoperative planning and the intraoperative execution of different philosophies of alignment. Preoperative planning using CT-based 3D imaging enables more accurate prediction of the size of components, enhancing surgical workflow and optimizing the precision of the positioning of components. Surgeons can assess alignment, osteophytes, and arthritic changes better. These scans provide improved insights into the patellofemoral joint and facilitate tibial sizing and the evaluation of implant-bone contact area in cementless TKA. Preoperative CT imaging is also required for the development of patient-specific instrumentation cutting guides, aiming to reduce intraoperative blood loss and improve the surgical technique in complex cases. Intraoperative CT-based navigation and haptic guidance facilitates precise execution of the preoperative plan, aiming for optimal positioning of the components and accurate alignment, as determined by the surgeon’s philosophy. It also helps reduce iatrogenic injury to the periarticular soft-tissue structures with subsequent reduction in the local and systemic inflammatory response, enhancing early outcomes. Despite the increased costs and radiation exposure associated with CT-based navigation, these many benefits have facilitated the adoption of imaged based robotic surgery into routine practice. Further research on ultra-low-dose CT scans and exploration of the possible translation of the use of 3D imaging into improved clinical outcomes are required to justify its broader implementation. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2024;106-B(9):892–897

Aims. This study aims to describe a new method that may be used as a supplement to evaluate humeral rotational alignment during intramedullary nail (IMN) insertion using the profile of the perpendicular peak of the greater tuberosity and its relation to the transepicondylar axis. We called this angle the greater tuberosity version angle (GTVA). Methods. This study analyzed 506 cadaveric humeri of adult patients. All humeri were CT scanned using 0.625 × 0.625 × 0.625 mm cubic voxels. The images acquired were used to generate 3D surface models of the humerus. Next, 3D landmarks were automatically calculated on each 3D bone using custom-written C++ software. The anatomical landmarks analyzed were the transepicondylar axis, the humerus anatomical axis, and the peak of the perpendicular axis of the greater tuberosity. Lastly, the angle between the transepicondylar axis and the greater tuberosity axis was calculated and defined as the GTVA. Results. The value of GTVA was 20.9° (SD 4.7°) (95% CI 20.47° to 21.3°). Results of analysis of variance revealed that females had a statistically significant larger angle of 21.95° (SD 4.49°) compared to males, which were found to be 20.49° (SD 4.8°) (p = 0.001). Conclusion. This study identified a consistent relationship between palpable anatomical landmarks, enhancing IMN accuracy by utilizing 3D CT scans and replicating a 20.9° angle from the greater tuberosity to the transepicondylar axis. Using this angle as a secondary reference may help mitigate the complications associated with malrotation of the humerus following IMN. However, future trials are needed for clinical validation. Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2024;5(10):929–936

The October 2024 Shoulder & Elbow Roundup360 looks at: Proximal humeral fractures with vascular compromise; Outcomes and challenges of revision arthroscopic rotator cuff repair: a systematic review; Evaluating treatment effectiveness for lateral elbow tendinopathy: a systematic review and network meta-analysis; Tendon transfer techniques for irreparable subscapularis tears: a comparative review; Impact of subscapularis repair in reverse shoulder arthroplasty; Isolated subscapularis tears strongly linked to shoulder pseudoparesis; Nexel and Coonrad-Morrey total elbow arthroplasties show comparable revision rates in New Zealand study; 3D MRI matches 3D CT in assessing bone loss and shoulder morphology in dislocation cases

Aims. The aim of this study was to investigate the global and local impact of fat on bone in obesity by using the diet-induced obese (DIO) mouse model. Methods. In this study, we generated a diet-induced mouse model of obesity to conduct lipidomic and 3D imaging assessments of bone marrow fat, and evaluated the correlated bone adaptation indices and bone mechanical properties. Results. Our results indicated that bone mass was reduced and bone mechanical properties were impaired in DIO mice. Lipidomic sequencing and bioinformatic analysis identified 373 differential lipids, 176 of which were upregulated and 197 downregulated. Functional enrichment analysis revealed a significant downregulation of the pathways: fat digestion and absorption (ko04975) and lipolysis regulation in adipocytes (ko04923) in DIO mice, leading to local fat accumulation. The use of 3D imaging confirmed the increase in fat accumulation within the bone marrow cavity of obese mice. Conclusion. Our study sheds light on the intricate interplay between fat and bone, and provides a non-toxic and non-invasive method for measuring marrow adipose tissue. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2023;12(9):580–589

Aims. This study aimed to analyze the accuracy and errors associated with 3D-printed, patient-specific resection guides (3DP-PSRGs) used for bone tumour resection. Methods. We retrospectively reviewed 29 bone tumour resections that used 3DP-PSRGs based on 3D CT and 3D MRI. We evaluated the resection amount errors and resection margin errors relative to the preoperative plans. Guide-fitting errors and guide distortion were evaluated intraoperatively and one month postoperatively, respectively. We categorized each of these error types into three grades (grade 1, < 1 mm; grade 2, 1 to 3 mm; and grade 3, > 3 mm) to evaluate the overall accuracy. Results. The maximum resection amount error was 2 mm. Out of 29 resection amount errors, 15 (51.7%) were grade 1 errors and 14 (48.3%) were grade 2 errors. Complex resections were associated with higher-grade resection amount errors (p < 0.001). The actual resection margins correlated significantly with the planned margins; however, there were some discrepancies. The maximum guide-fitting error was 3 mm. There were 22 (75.9%), five (17.2%), and two (6.9%) grade 1, 2, and 3 guide-fitting errors, respectively. There was no significant association between complex resection and fitting error grades. The guide distortion after one month in all patients was rated as grade 1. Conclusion. In terms of the accurate resection amount according to the preoperative planning, 3DP-PSRGs can be a viable option for bone tumour resection. However, 3DP-PSRG use may be associated with resection margin length discrepancies relative to the planned margins. Such discrepancies should be considered when determining surgical margins. Therefore, a thorough evaluation of the preoperative imaging and surgical planning is still required, even if 3DP-PSRGs are to be used. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2023;105-B(2):190–197

Aims. The “2 to 10% strain rule” for fracture healing has been widely interpreted to mean that interfragmentary strain greater than 10% predisposes a fracture to nonunion. This interpretation focuses on the gap-closing strain (axial micromotion divided by gap size), ignoring the region around the gap where osteogenesis typically initiates. The aim of this study was to measure gap-closing and 3D interfragmentary strains in plated ovine osteotomies and associate local strain conditions with callus mineralization. Methods. MicroCT scans of eight female sheep with plated mid-shaft tibial osteotomies were used to create image-based finite element models. Virtual mechanical testing was used to compute postoperative gap-closing and 3D continuum strains representing compression (volumetric strain) and shear deformation (distortional strain). Callus mineralization was measured in zones in and around the osteotomy gap. Results. Gap-closing strains averaged 51% (mean) at the far cortex. Peak compressive volumetric strain averaged 32% and only a small tissue volume (average 0.3 cm. 3. ) within the gap experienced compressive strains > 10%. Distortional strains were much higher and more widespread, peaking at a mean of 115%, with a mean of 3.3 cm. 3. of tissue in and around the osteotomy experiencing distortional strains > 10%. Callus mineralization initiated outside the high-strain gap and was significantly lower within the fracture gap compared to around it at nine weeks. Conclusion. Ovine osteotomies can heal with high gap strains (> 10%) dominated by shear conditions. High gap strain appears to be a transient local limiter of osteogenesis, not a global inhibitor of secondary fracture repair. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2025;14(1):5–15

Aims. This study aimed to answer the following questions: do 3D-printed models lead to a more accurate recognition of the pattern of complex fractures of the elbow?; do 3D-printed models lead to a more reliable recognition of the pattern of these injuries?; and do junior surgeons benefit more from 3D-printed models than senior surgeons?. Methods. A total of 15 orthopaedic trauma surgeons (seven juniors, eight seniors) evaluated 20 complex elbow fractures for their overall pattern (i.e. varus posterior medial rotational injury, terrible triad injury, radial head fracture with posterolateral dislocation, anterior (trans-)olecranon fracture-dislocation, posterior (trans-)olecranon fracture-dislocation) and their specific characteristics. First, fractures were assessed based on radiographs and 2D and 3D CT scans; and in a subsequent round, one month later, with additional 3D-printed models. Diagnostic accuracy (acc) and inter-surgeon reliability (κ) were determined for each assessment. Results. Accuracy significantly improved with 3D-printed models for the whole group on pattern recognition (acc. 2D/3D. = 0.62 vs acc. 3Dprint. = 0.69; Δacc = 0.07 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.00 to 0.14); p = 0.025). A significant improvement was also seen in reliability for pattern recognition with the additional 3D-printed models (κ. 2D/3D. = 0.41 (moderate) vs κ. 3Dprint. = 0.59 (moderate); Δκ = 0.18 (95% CI 0.14 to 0.22); p ≤ 0.001). Accuracy was comparable between junior and senior surgeons with the 3D-printed model (acc. junior. = 0.70 vs acc. senior. = 0.68; Δacc = -0.02 (95% CI -0.17 to 0.13); p = 0.904). Reliability was also comparable between junior and senior surgeons without the 3D-printed model (κ. junior. = 0.39 (fair) vs κ. senior. = 0.43 (moderate); Δκ = 0.03 (95% CI -0.03 to 0.10); p = 0.318). However, junior surgeons showed greater improvement regarding reliability than seniors with 3D-printed models (κ. junior. = 0.65 (substantial) vs κ. senior. = 0.54 (moderate); Δκ = 0.11 (95% CI 0.04 to 0.18); p = 0.002). Conclusion. The use of 3D-printed models significantly improved the accuracy and reliability of recognizing the pattern of complex fractures of the elbow. However, the current long printing time and non-reusable materials could limit the usefulness of 3D-printed models in clinical practice. They could be suitable as a reusable tool for teaching residents. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2023;105-B(1):56–63

Aims. Studies of infant hip development to date have been limited by considering only the changes in appearance of a single ultrasound slice (Graf’s standard plane). We used 3D ultrasound (3DUS) to establish maturation curves of normal infant hip development, quantifying variation by age, sex, side, and anteroposterior location in the hip. Methods. We analyzed 3DUS scans of 519 infants (mean age 64 days (6 to 111 days)) presenting at a tertiary children’s hospital for suspicion of developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH). Hips that did not require ultrasound follow-up or treatment were classified as ‘typically developing’. We calculated traditional DDH indices like α angle (α. SP. ), femoral head coverage (FHC. SP. ), and several novel indices from 3DUS like the acetabular contact angle (ACA) and osculating circle radius (OCR) using custom software. Results. α angle, FHC, and ACA indices increased and OCR decreased significantly by age in the first four months, mean α. SP. rose from 62.2° (SD 5.7°) to 67.3° (SD 5.2°) (p < 0.001) in one- to eight- and nine- to 16-week-old infants, respectively. Mean α. SP. and mean FHC. SP. were significantly, but only slightly, lower in females than in males. There was no statistically significant difference in DDH indices observed between left and right hip. All 3DUS indices varied significantly between anterior and posterior section of the hip. Mean 3D indices of α angle and FHC were significantly lower anteriorly than posteriorly: α. Ant. = 58.2° (SD 6.1°), α. Post. = 63.8° (SD 6.3°) (p < 0.001), FHC. Ant. = 43.0 (SD 7.4), and FHC. Post. = 55.4° (SD 11.2°) (p < 0.001). Acetabular rounding measured byOCR indices was significantly greater in the anterior section of the hip (p < 0.001). Conclusion. We used 3DUS to show that hip shape and normal growth pattern vary significantly between anterior and posterior regions, by magnitudes similar to age-related changes. This highlights the need for careful selection of the Graf plane during 2D ultrasound examination. Whole-joint evaluation by obtaining either 3DUS or manual ‘sweep’ video images provides more comprehensive DDH assessment. Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2022;3(11):913–923

Aims. The liner design is a key determinant of the constraint of a reverse total shoulder arthroplasty (rTSA). The aim of this study was to compare the degree of constraint of rTSA liners between different implant systems. Methods. An implant company’s independent 3D shoulder arthroplasty planning software (mediCAD 3D shoulder v. 7.0, module v. 2.1.84.173.43) was used to determine the jump height of standard and constrained liners of different sizes (radius of curvature) of all available companies. The obtained parameters were used to calculate the stability ratio (degree of constraint) and angle of coverage (degree of glenosphere coverage by liner) of the different systems. Measurements were independently performed by two raters, and intraclass correlation coefficients were calculated to perform a reliability analysis. Additionally, measurements were compared with parameters provided by the companies themselves, when available, to ensure validity of the software-derived measurements. Results. There were variations in jump height between rTSA systems at a given size, resulting in large differences in stability ratio between systems. Standard liners exhibited a stability ratio range from 126% to 214% (mean 158% (SD 23%)) and constrained liners a range from 151% to 479% (mean 245% (SD 76%)). The angle of coverage showed a range from 103° to 130° (mean 115° (SD 7°)) for standard and a range from 113° to 156° (mean 133° (SD 11°)) for constrained liners. Four arthroplasty systems kept the stability ratio of standard liners constant (within 5%) across different sizes, while one system showed slight inconsistencies (within 10%), and ten arthroplasty systems showed large inconsistencies (range 11% to 28%). The stability ratio of constrained liners was consistent across different sizes in two arthroplasty systems and inconsistent in seven systems (range 18% to 106%). Conclusion. Large differences in jump height and resulting degree of constraint of rTSA liners were observed between different implant systems, and in many cases even within the same implant systems. While the immediate clinical effect remains unclear, in theory the degree of constraint of the liner plays an important role for the dislocation and notching risk of a rTSA system. Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2024;5(10):818–824

Aims. To evaluate how abnormal proximal femoral anatomy affects different femoral version measurements in young patients with hip pain. Methods. First, femoral version was measured in 50 hips of symptomatic consecutively selected patients with hip pain (mean age 20 years (SD 6), 60% (n = 25) females) on preoperative CT scans using different measurement methods: Lee et al, Reikerås et al, Tomczak et al, and Murphy et al. Neck-shaft angle (NSA) and α angle were measured on coronal and radial CT images. Second, CT scans from three patients with femoral retroversion, normal femoral version, and anteversion were used to create 3D femur models, which were manipulated to generate models with different NSAs and different cam lesions, resulting in eight models per patient. Femoral version measurements were repeated on manipulated femora. Results. Comparing the different measurement methods for femoral version resulted in a maximum mean difference of 18° (95% CI 16 to 20) between the most proximal (Lee et al) and most distal (Murphy et al) methods. Higher differences in proximal and distal femoral version measurement techniques were seen in femora with greater femoral version (r > 0.46; p < 0.001) and greater NSA (r > 0.37; p = 0.008) between all measurement methods. In the parametric 3D manipulation analysis, differences in femoral version increased 11° and 9° in patients with high and normal femoral version, respectively, with increasing NSA (110° to 150°). Conclusion. Measurement of femoral version angles differ depending on the method used to almost 20°, which is in the range of the aimed surgical correction in derotational femoral osteotomy and thus can be considered clinically relevant. Differences between proximal and distal measurement methods further increase by increasing femoral version and NSA. Measurement methods that take the entire proximal femur into account by using distal landmarks may produce more sensitive measurements of these differences. Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2022;3(10):759–766

Aims. We quantitatively compared the 3D bone density distributions on CT scans performed on scaphoid waist fractures subacutely that went on to union or nonunion, and assessed whether 2D CT evaluations correlate with 3D bone density evaluations. Methods. We constructed 3D models from 17 scaphoid waist fracture CTs performed between four to 18 weeks after fracture that did not unite (nonunion group), 17 age-matched scaphoid waist fracture CTs that healed (union group), and 17 age-matched control CTs without injury (control group). We measured the 3D bone density for the distal and proximal fragments relative to the triquetrum bone density and compared findings among the three groups. We then performed bone density measurements using 2D CT and evaluated the correlation with 3D bone densities. We identified the optimal cutoff with diagnostic values of the 2D method to predict nonunion with receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves. Results. In the nonunion group, both the distal (100.2%) and proximal (126.6%) fragments had a significantly higher bone density compared to the union (distal: 85.7%; proximal: 108.3%) or control groups (distal: 91.6%; proximal: 109.1%) using the 3D bone density measurement, which were statistically significant for all comparisons. 2D measurements were highly correlated to 3D bone density measurements (Spearman’s correlation coefficient (R) = 0.85 to 0.95). Using 2D measurements, ROC curve analysis revealed the optimal cutoffs of 90.8% and 116.3% for distal and proximal fragments. This led to a sensitivity of 1.00 if either cutoff is met and a specificity of 0.82 when both cutoffs are met. Conclusion. Using 3D modelling software, nonunions were found to exhibit bone density increases in both the distal and proximal fragments in CTs performed between four to 18 weeks after fracture during the course of treatment. 2D bone density measurements using standard CT scans correlate well with 3D models. In patients with scaphoid fractures, CT bone density measurements may be useful in predicting the likelihood of nonunion. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2020;102-B(9):1200–1209

Aims. The morphology of medial malleolar fracture is highly variable and difficult to characterize without 3D reconstruction. There is also no universally accepeted classification system. Thus, we aimed to characterize fracture patterns of the medial malleolus and propose a classification scheme based on 3D CT reconstruction. Methods. We retrospectively reviewed 537 consecutive cases of ankle fractures involving the medial malleolus treated in our institution. 3D fracture maps were produced by superimposing all the fracture lines onto a standard template. We sliced fracture fragments and the standard template based on selected sagittal and coronal planes to create 2D fracture maps, where angles α and β were measured. Angles α and β were defined as the acute angles formed by the fracture line and the horizontal line on the selected planes. Results. A total of 121 ankle fractures were included. We revealed several important fracture features, such as a high correlation between posterior collicular fractures and posteromedial fragments. Moreover, we generalized the fracture geometry into three recurrent patterns on the coronal view of 3D maps (transverse, vertical, and irregular) and five recurrent patterns on the lateral view (transverse, oblique, vertical, Y-shaped, and irregular). According to the fracture geometry on the coronal and lateral view of 3D maps, we subsequently categorized medial malleolar fractures into six types based on the recurrent patterns: anterior collicular fracture (27 type I, 22.3%), posterior collicular fracture (12 type II, 9.9%), concurrent fracture of anterior and posterior colliculus (16 type III, 13.2%), and supra-intercollicular groove fracture (66 type IV, 54.5%). Therewere three variants of type IV fractures: transverse (type IVa), vertical (type IVb), and comminuted fracture (type IVc). The angles α and β varied accordingly. Conclusion. Our findings yield insight into the characteristics and recurrent patterns of medial malleolar fractures. The proposed classification system is helpful in understanding injury mechanisms and guiding diagnosis, as well as surgical strategies. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2021;103-B(5):931–938

Aims. The lateral centre-edge angle (LCEA) is a plain radiological measure of superolateral cover of the femoral head. This study aims to establish the correlation between 2D radiological and 3D CT measurements of acetabular morphology, and to describe the relationship between LCEA and femoral head cover (FHC). Methods. This retrospective study included 353 periacetabular osteotomies (PAOs) performed between January 2014 and December 2017. Overall, 97 hips in 75 patients had 3D analysis by Clinical Graphics, giving measurements for LCEA, acetabular index (AI), and FHC. Roentgenographical LCEA, AI, posterior wall index (PWI), and anterior wall index (AWI) were measured from supine AP pelvis radiographs. The correlation between CT and roentgenographical measurements was calculated. Sequential multiple linear regression was performed to determine the relationship between roentgenographical measurements and CT FHC. Results. CT-measured LCEA and AI correlated strongly with roentgenographical LCEA (r = 0.92; p < 0.001) and AI (r = 0.83; p < 0.001). Radiological LCEA correlated very strongly with CT FHC (r = 0.92; p < 0.001). The sum of AWI and PWI also correlated strongly with CTFHC (r = 0.73; p < 0.001). CT measurements of LCEA and AI were 3.4° less and 2.3° greater than radiological LCEA and AI measures. There was a linear relation between radiological LCEA and CT FHC. The linear regression model statistically significantly predicted FHC from LCEA, F(1,96) = 545.1 (p < 0.001), adjusted R. 2. = 85.0%, with the prediction equation: CT FHC(%) = 42.1 + 0.77(XRLCEA). Conclusion. CT and roentgenographical measurement of acetabular parameters are comparable. Currently, a radiological LCEA greater than 25° is considered normal. This study demonstrates that those with hip pain and normal radiological acetabular parameters may still have deficiencies in FHC. More sophisticated imaging techniques such as 3D CT should be considered for those with hip pain to identify deficiencies in FHC. Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2022;3(1):12–19

Aims. This study aimed to evaluate the accuracy of implant placement with robotic-arm assisted total hip arthroplasty (THA) in patients with developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH). Methods. The study analyzed a consecutive series of 69 patients who underwent robotic-arm assisted THA between September 2018 and December 2019. Of these, 30 patients had DDH and were classified according to the Crowe type. Acetabular component alignment and 3D positions were measured using pre- and postoperative CT data. The absolute differences of cup alignment and 3D position were compared between DDH and non-DDH patients. Moreover, these differences were analyzed in relation to the severity of DDH. The discrepancy of leg length and combined offset compared with contralateral hip were measured. Results. The mean values of absolute differences (postoperative CT-preoperative plan) were 1.7° (standard deviation (SD) 2.0) (inclination) and 2.5° (SD 2.1°) (anteversion) in DDH patients, and no significant differences were found between non-DDH and DDH patients. The mean absolute differences for 3D cup position were 1.1 mm (SD 1.0) (coronal plane) and 1.2 mm (SD 2.1) (axial plane) in DDH patients, and no significant differences were found between two groups. No significant difference was found either in cup alignment between postoperative CT and navigation record after cup screws or in the severity of DDH. Excellent restoration of leg length and combined offset were achieved in both groups. Conclusion. We demonstrated that robotic-assisted THA may achieve precise cup positioning in DDH patients, and may be useful in those with severe DDH. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2021;10(10):629–638

Aims. No predictive model has been published to forecast operating time for total knee arthroplasty (TKA). The aims of this study were to design and validate a predictive model to estimate operating time for robotic-assisted TKA based on demographic data, and evaluate the added predictive power of CT scan-based predictors and their impact on the accuracy of the predictive model. Methods. A retrospective study was conducted on 1,061 TKAs performed from January 2016 to December 2019 with an image-based robotic-assisted system. Demographic data included age, sex, height, and weight. The femoral and tibial mechanical axis and the osteophyte volume were calculated from CT scans. These inputs were used to develop a predictive model aimed to predict operating time based on demographic data only, and demographic and 3D patient anatomy data. Results. The key factors for predicting operating time were the surgeon and patient weight, followed by 12 anatomical parameters derived from CT scans. The predictive model based only on demographic data showed that 90% of predictions were within 15 minutes of actual operating time, with 73% within ten minutes. The predictive model including demographic data and CT scans showed that 94% of predictions were within 15 minutes of actual operating time and 88% within ten minutes. Conclusion. The primary factors for predicting robotic-assisted TKA operating time were surgeon, patient weight, and osteophyte volume. This study demonstrates that incorporating 3D patient-specific data can improve operating time predictions models, which may lead to improved operating room planning and efficiency. Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2022;3(5):383–389

The December 2024 Children’s orthopaedics Roundup. 360. looks at: Establishing best practice for managing idiopathic toe walking in children: a UK consensus; Long-term outcomes of below-elbow casting in paediatric diaphyseal forearm fractures; Residual dysplasia risk persists in developmental dysplasia of the hip patients after Pavlik harness treatment; 3D printing in paediatricorthopaedics: enhancing surgical efficiency and patient outcomes; Pavlik harness treatment for hip dysplasia does not delay motor skill development in children; High prevalence of hip dysplasia found in adolescents with idiopathic scoliosis on routine spine radiographs; Minifragment plates as effective growth modulation for ulnar deformities of the distal radius in children; Long-term success of Chiari pelvic osteotomy in preserving hip function: 30-year follow-up study

Aims. The aim of this study was to investigate whether intraoperative 3D fluoroscopic imaging outperforms dorsal tangential views in the detection of dorsal cortex screw penetration after volar plating of an intra-articular distal radial fracture, as identified on postoperative CT imaging. Methods. A total of 165 prospectively enrolled patients who underwent volar plating for an intra-articular distal radial fracture were retrospectively evaluated to study three intraoperative imaging protocols: 1) standard 2D fluoroscopic imaging with anteroposterior (AP) and elevated lateral images (n = 55); 2) 2D fluoroscopic imaging with AP, lateral, and dorsal tangential views images (n = 50); and 3) 3D fluoroscopy (n = 60). Multiplanar reconstructions of postoperative CT scans served as the reference standard. Results. In order to detect dorsal screw penetration, the sensitivity of dorsal tangential views was 39% with a negative predictive value (NPV) of 91% and an accuracy of 91%; compared with a sensitivity of 25% for 3D fluoroscopy with a NPV of 93% and an accuracy of 93%. On the postoperative CT scans, we found penetrating screws in: 1) 40% of patients in the 2D fluoroscopy group; 2) in 32% of those in the 2D fluoroscopy group with AP, lateral, and dorsal tangential views; and 3) in 25% of patients in the 3D fluoroscopy group. In all three groups, the second compartment was prone to penetration, while the postoperative incidence decreased when more advanced imaging was used. There were no penetrating screws in the third compartment (extensor pollicis longus groove) in the 3D fluoroscopy groups, and one in the dorsal tangential views group. Conclusion. Advanced intraoperative imaging helps to identify screws which have penetrated the dorsal compartments of the wrist. However, based on diagnostic performance characteristics, one cannot conclude that 3D fluoroscopy outperforms dorsal tangential views when used for this purpose. Dorsal tangential views are sufficiently accurate to detect dorsal screw penetration, and arguably more efficacious than 3D fluoroscopy. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2020;102-B(7):874–880

The October 2023 Foot & Ankle Roundup. 360. looks at: Risk factors for failure of total ankle arthroplasties; Effects of synovial fluid fracture haematoma to tissue-engineered cartilage; Coronal plane deformity in CMT-cavovarus feet using automated 3D measurements; Immediate weightbearing after ankle fracture fixation – is it safe?; Unlocking the mystery of Mueller-Weiss disease; Diabetic foot management: predictors of failure

The April 2024 Shoulder & Elbow Roundup. 360. looks at: Acute rehabilitation following traumatic anterior shoulder dislocation (ARTISAN): pragmatic, multicentre, randomized controlled trial; Prevalence and predisposing factors of neuropathic pain in patients with rotator cuff tears; Are two plates better than one? The clavicle fracture reimagined; A single cell atlas of frozen shoulder capsule identifies features associated with inflammatory fibrosis resolution; Complication rates and deprivation go hand in hand with total shoulder arthroplasty; Longitudinal instability injuries of the forearm; A better than “best-fit circle” method for glenoid bone loss assessment; 3D supraspinatus muscle volume and intramuscular fatty infiltration after arthroscopic rotator cuff repair

Aims. Autologous chondrocyte implantation (ACI) is a promising treatment for articular cartilage degeneration and injury; however, it requires a large number of human hyaline chondrocytes, which often undergo dedifferentiation during in vitro expansion. This study aimed to investigate the effect of suramin on chondrocyte differentiation and its underlying mechanism. Methods. Porcine chondrocytes were treated with vehicle or various doses of suramin. The expression of collagen, type II, alpha 1 (COL2A1), aggrecan (ACAN); COL1A1; COL10A1; SRY-box transcription factor 9 (SOX9); nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase (NOX); interleukin (IL)-1β; tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNFα); IL-8; and matrix metallopeptidase 13 (MMP-13) in chondrocytes at both messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein levels was determined by quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and western blot. In addition, the supplementation of suramin to redifferentiation medium for the culture of expanded chondrocytes in 3D pellets was evaluated. Glycosaminoglycan (GAG) and collagen production were evaluated by biochemical analyses and immunofluorescence, as well as by immunohistochemistry. The expression of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and NOX activity were assessed by luciferase reporter gene assay, immunofluorescence analysis, and flow cytometry. Mutagenesis analysis, Alcian blue staining, reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and western blot assay were used to determine whether p67. phox. was involved in suramin-enhanced chondrocyte phenotype maintenance. Results. Suramin enhanced the COL2A1 and ACAN expression and lowered COL1A1 synthesis. Also, in 3D pellet culture GAG and COL2A1 production was significantly higher in pellets consisting of chondrocytes expanded with suramin compared to controls. Surprisingly, suramin also increased ROS generation, which is largely caused by enhanced NOX (p67. phox. ) activity and membrane translocation. Overexpression of p67. phox. but not p67. phox. AD (deleting amino acid (a.a) 199 to 212) mutant, which does not support ROS production in chondrocytes, significantly enhanced chondrocyte phenotype maintenance, SOX9 expression, and AKT (S473) phosphorylation. Knockdown of p67. phox. with its specific short hairpin (sh) RNA (shRNA) abolished the suramin-induced effects. Moreover, when these cells were treated with the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/AKT) inhibitor LY294002 or shRNA of AKT1, p67. phox. -induced COL2A1 and ACAN expression was significantly inhibited. Conclusion. Suramin could redifferentiate dedifferentiated chondrocytes dependent on p67. phox. activation, which is mediated by the PI3K/AKT/SOX9 signalling pathway. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2022;11(10):723–738

Aims. The aim of this study was to assess the accuracy of pedicle screw placement, as well as intraoperative factors, radiation exposure, and complication rates in adult patients with degenerative disorders of the thoracic and lumbar spines who have undergone robotic-navigated spinal surgery using a contemporary system. Methods. The authors reviewed the prospectively collected data on 196 adult patients who had pedicle screws implanted with robot-navigated assistance (RNA) using the Mazor X Stealth system between June 2019 and March 2022. Pedicle screws were implanted by one experienced spinal surgeon after completion of a learning period. The accuracy of pedicle screw placement was determined using intraoperative 3D fluoroscopy. Results. A total of 1,123 pedicle screws were implanted: 1,001 screws (89%) were placed robotically, 63 (6%) were converted from robotic placement to a freehand technique, and 59 (5%) were planned to be implanted freehand. Of the robotically placed screws, 942 screws (94%) were determined to be Gertzbein and Robbins grade A with median deviation of 0.8 mm (interquartile range 0.4 to 1.6). Skive events were noted with 20 pedicle screws (1.8%). No adverse clinical sequelae were noted in the 90-day follow-up. The mean fluoroscopic exposure per screw was 4.9 seconds (SD 3.8). Conclusion. RNA is highly accurate and reliable, with a low rate of abandonment once mastered. No adverse clinical sequelae occurred after implanting a large series of pedicle screws using the latest generation of RNA. Understanding of patient-specific anatomical features and the real-time intraoperative identification of risk factors for suboptimal screw placement have the potential to improve accuracy further. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2023;105-B(5):543–550

Aims. Radiostereometric analysis (RSA) is the most accurate radiological method to measure in vivo wear of highly cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) acetabular components. We have previously reported very low wear rates for a sequentially irradiated and annealed X3 XLPE liner (Stryker Orthopaedics, USA) when used in conjunction with a 32 mm femoral heads at ten-year follow-up. Only two studies have reported the long-term wear rate of X3 liners used in conjunction with larger heads using plain radiographs which have poor sensitivity. The aim of this study was to measure the ten-year wear of thin X3 XLPE liners against larger 36 or 40 mm articulations with RSA. Methods. We prospectively reviewed 19 patients who underwent primary cementless THA with the XLPE acetabular liner (X3) and a 36 or 40 mm femoral head with a resultant liner thickness of at least 5.8 mm. RSA radiographs at one week, six months, and one, two, five, and ten years postoperatively and femoral head penetration within the acetabular component were measured with UmRSA software. Of the initial 19 patients, 12 were available at the ten-year time point. Results. The median proximal, 2D, and 3D wear rates calculated between one and ten years were all less than 0.005 mm/year, with no patient recording a proximal wear rate of more than 0.021 mm/year. Importantly, there was no increase in the wear rate between five and ten years. Conclusion. The very low wear rate of X3 XLPE liners with larger articulations remains encouraging for the future clinical performance of this material. Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2023;4(11):839–845

Orthopaedic surgeons are currently faced with an overwhelming number of choices surrounding total knee arthroplasty (TKA), not only with the latest technologies and prostheses, but also fundamental decisions on alignment philosophies. From ‘mechanical’ to ‘adjusted mechanical’ to ‘restricted kinematic’ to ‘unrestricted kinematic’ — and how constitutional alignment relates to these — there is potential for ambiguity when thinking about and discussing such concepts. This annotation summarizes the various alignment strategies currently employed in TKA. It provides a clear framework and consistent language that will assist surgeons to compare confidently and contrast the concepts, while also discussing the latest opinions about alignment in TKA. Finally, it provides suggestions for applying consistent nomenclature to future research, especially as we explore the implications of 3D alignment patterns on patient outcomes. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2023;105-B(2):102–108

Aims. In this study, we aimed to visualize the spatial distribution characteristics of femoral head necrosis using a novel measurement method. Methods. We retrospectively collected CT imaging data of 108 hips with non-traumatic osteonecrosis of the femoral head from 76 consecutive patients (mean age 34.3 years (SD 8.1), 56.58% male (n = 43)) in two clinical centres. The femoral head was divided into 288 standard units (based on the orientation of units within the femoral head, designated as N[Superior], S[Inferior], E[Anterior], and W[Posterior]) using a new measurement system called the longitude and latitude division system (LLDS). A computer-aided design (CAD) measurement tool was also developed to visualize the measurement of the spatial location of necrotic lesions in CT images. Two orthopaedic surgeons independently performed measurements, and the results were used to draw 2D and 3D heat maps of spatial distribution of necrotic lesions in the femoral head, and for statistical analysis. Results. The results showed that the LLDS has high inter-rater reliability. As illustrated by the heat map, the distribution of Japanese Investigation Committee (JIC) classification type C necrotic lesions exhibited clustering characteristics, with the lesions being concentrated in the northern and eastern regions, forming a hot zone (90% probability) centred on the N4-N6E2, N3-N6E units of outer ring blocks. Statistical results showed that the distribution difference between type C2 and type C1 was most significant in the E1 and E2 units and, combined with the heat map, indicated that the spatial distribution differences at N3-N6E1 and N1-N3E2 units are crucial in understanding type C1 and C2 necrotic lesions. Conclusion. The LLDS can be used to accurately measure the spatial location of necrotic lesions and display their distribution characteristics. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2024;13(6):294–305

Aims. After a few passages of in vitro culture, primary human articular chondrocytes undergo senescence and loss of their phenotype. Most of the available chondrocyte cell lines have been obtained from cartilage tissues different from diarthrodial joints, and their utility for osteoarthritis (OA) research is reduced. Thus, the goal of this research was the development of immortalized chondrocyte cell lines proceeded from the articular cartilage of patients with and without OA. Methods. Using telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) and SV40 large T antigen (SV40LT), we transduced primary OA articular chondrocytes. Proliferative capacity, degree of senescence, and chondrocyte surface antigen expression in transduced chondrocytes were evaluated. In addition, the capacity of transduced chondrocytes to synthesize a tissue similar to cartilage and to respond to interleukin (IL)-1β was assessed. Results. Coexpression of both transgenes (SV40 and hTERT) were observed in the nuclei of transduced chondrocytes. Generated chondrocyte cell lines showed a high proliferation capacity and less than 2% of senescent cells. These cell lines were able to form 3D aggregates analogous to those generated by primary articular chondrocytes, but were unsuccessful in synthesizing cartilage-like tissue when seeded on type I collagen sponges. However, generated chondrocyte cell lines maintained the potential to respond to IL-1β stimulation. Conclusion. Through SV40LT and hTERT transduction, we successfully immortalized chondrocytes. These immortalized chondrocytes were able to overcome senescence in vitro, but were incapable of synthesizing cartilage-like tissue under the experimental conditions. Nonetheless, these chondrocyte cell lines could be advantageous for OA investigation since, similarly to primary articular chondrocytes, they showed capacity to upregulate inflammatory mediators in response to the IL-1β cytokine. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2023;12(1):46–57