We carried out limb lengthening in rabbits and then transplanted osteoblast-like cells derived from the tibial periosteum to the centres of distracted callus immediately after distraction had been terminated. Two weeks later the transaxial area ratio at the centre of the distracted callus and the bone mineral density (BMD) were significantly higher in the transplanted group, by 21% and 42%, respectively, than in the non-injected group or the group injected with physiological saline (p < 0.05). Callus BMD as a percentage of density in uninvolved bone was also significantly higher in the transplanted group (p < 0.05) than in the other two groups, by 27% and 20% in the second and fourth weeks, respectively (p < 0.05). Mechanically, the callus in the transplanted group tended to be stronger as shown by the three-point bending test although the difference in fracture strength was not statistically significant. Our results show that transplantation of osteoblast-like cells promotes maturity of the distracted callus as observed at the second and fourth weeks after lengthening. The method appears promising as a means of shortening the consolidation period of callus distraction and decreasing complications during limb lengthening with an external fixator

Since bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are highly homologous, we investigated the hypothesis that recombinant BMP-4 of the genome of Xenopus laevis (rxBMP-4) may influence the proliferation or differentiation of human primary osteoblast-like cells (HPOC), as occurs with recombinant human BMP (rhBMP-2). HPOC were incubated in the presence of either rxBMP-4, rhBMP-2 or basic fibroblast growth factor (rh-bFGF). The last two were used as positive controls and are known to induce differentiation or proliferation of HPOC, respectively. rxBMP-4 (50 ng/ml and 100 ng/ml) induced a differentiation of HPOC to almost the same extent as rhBMP-2, whereas the addition of rh-bFGF, applied in the same concentration, failed to have any influence on cell differentiation. rh-bFGF however, provoked an increase in cell proliferation of up to 150% when compared with non-stimulated HPOC, while rhBMP-2 and rxBMP-4 had no such effect. Our results indicate an equipotent effect of rhBMP-2 and rxBMP-4 obtained from Xenopus laevis on the differentiation and proliferation of human primary osteoblast-like cells

Periprosthetic osteolysis is a major cause of aseptic loosening in artificial joint replacement. It is assumed to occur in conjunction with the activation of macrophages. We have shown in vitro that human osteoblast-like cells, isolated from bone specimens obtained from patients undergoing hip replacement, phagocytose fine particles of titanium alloy (TiAlV). The human osteoblast-like cells were identified immunocytochemically by the presence of bone-specific alkaline phosphatase (BAP). With increasing duration of culture, a variable number of the osteoblastic cells became positive for the macrophage marker CD68, independent of the phagocytosis of particles, with a fine granular cytoplasmic staining which was coexpressed with BAP as revealed by immunodoublestaining. The metal particles were not toxic to the osteoblastic cells since even in culture for up to four weeks massively laden cells were vital and had a characteristic morphology. Cells of the human osteosarcoma cell line (HOS 58) were also able to phagocytose metal particles but had only a low expression of the CD68 antigen. Fluorescence-activated cell scanning confirmed our immunocytochemical results. Additionally, the cells were found to be negative for the major histocompatibility complex-II (MHC-II) which is a marker for macrophages and other antigen-presenting cells. Negative results of histochemical tests for tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase excluded the contamination by osteoclasts or macrophages in culture. Our observations suggest that the osteoblast can either change to a phagocytosing cell or that the phagocytosis is an underestimated property of the osteoblast. The detection of the CD68 antigen is insufficient to prove the monocytic lineage. In order to discriminate between macrophages and osteoblasts additional markers should be used. To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of cells of an osteoblastic origin which have acquired a mixed phenotype of both osteoblasts and macrophages

We investigated the effect of vitamin D receptor gene (VDRG) polymorphism on the responsiveness to 1,25(OH). 2. D. 3. in human osteoblast-like cells. The cells were obtained from the femoral heads of 18 women with osteoarthritis of the hip. Three different restriction enzymes, BsmI, ApaI, and TaqI, were used to analyse the polymorphism. The genotypes of the 18 patients were bbAaTT (8), bbaaTT (6), BbAaTt (3), and BbAATt (1). Our findings showed that there were no differences according to the VDR genotype, but there was a statistically significant difference in the production of osteocalcin between BbAaTt and bbAaTT, and between BbAaTt and bbaaTT. Northern blot analysis of osteocalcin and VDR mRNA showed no significant differences among the three VDR genotypes. These findings suggest that VDR gene polymorphism affects the individual responsiveness of 1,25(OH). 2. D. 3.

Objectives. In order to ensure safety of the cell-based therapy for bone regeneration, we examined in vivo biodistribution of locally or systemically transplanted osteoblast-like cells generated from bone marrow (BM) derived mononuclear cells. Methods. BM cells obtained from a total of 13 Sprague-Dawley (SD) green fluorescent protein transgenic (GFP-Tg) rats were culture-expanded in an osteogenic differentiation medium for three weeks. Osteoblast-like cells were then locally transplanted with collagen scaffolds to the rat model of segmental bone defect. Donor cells were also intravenously infused to the normal Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats for systemic biodistribution. The flow cytometric and histological analyses were performed for cellular tracking after transplantation. Results. Locally transplanted donor cells remained within the vicinity of the transplantation site without migrating to other organs. Systemically administered large amounts of osteoblast-like cells were cleared from various organ tissues within three days of transplantation and did not show any adverse effects in the transplanted rats. Conclusions. We demonstrated a precise assessment of donor cell biodistribution that further augments prospective utility of regenerative cell therapy. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2014;3:76–81

Aims. Bone regeneration during treatment of staphylococcal bone infection is challenging due to the ability of Staphylococcus aureus to invade and persist within osteoblasts. Here, we sought to determine whether the metabolic and extracellular organic matrix formation and mineralization ability of S. aureus-infected human osteoblasts can be restored after rifampicin (RMP) therapy. Methods. The human osteoblast-like Saos-2 cells infected with S. aureus EDCC 5055 strain and treated with 8 µg/ml RMP underwent osteogenic stimulation for up to 21 days. Test groups were Saos-2 cells + S. aureus and Saos-2 cells + S. aureus + 8 µg/ml RMP, and control groups were uninfected untreated Saos-2 cells and uninfected Saos-2 cells + 8 µg/ml RMP. Results. The S. aureus-infected osteoblasts showed a significant number of intracellular bacteria colonies and an unusual higher metabolic activity (p < 0.005) compared to uninfected osteoblasts. Treatment with 8 µg/ml RMP significantly eradicated intracellular bacteria and the metabolic activity was comparable to uninfected groups. The RMP-treated infected osteoblasts revealed a significantly reduced amount of mineralized extracellular matrix (ECM) at seven days osteogenesis relative to uninfected untreated osteoblasts (p = 0.007). Prolonged osteogenesis and RMP treatment at 21 days significantly improved the ECM mineralization level. Ultrastructural images of the mineralized RMP-treated infected osteoblasts revealed viable osteoblasts and densely distributed calcium crystal deposits within the extracellular organic matrix. The expression levels of prominent bone formation genes were comparable to the RMP-treated uninfected osteoblasts. Conclusion. Intracellular S. aureus infection impaired osteoblast metabolism and function. However, treatment with low dosage of RMP eradicated the intracellular S. aureus, enabling extracellular organic matrix formation and mineralization of osteoblasts at later stage. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2022;11(5):327–341

Objectives. We have observed clinical cases where bone is formed in the overlaying muscle covering surgically created bone defects treated with a hydroxyapatite/calcium sulphate biomaterial. Our objective was to investigate the osteoinductive potential of the biomaterial and to determine if growth factors secreted from local bone cells induce osteoblastic differentiation of muscle cells. Materials and Methods. We seeded mouse skeletal muscle cells C2C12 on the hydroxyapatite/calcium sulphate biomaterial and the phenotype of the cells was analysed. To mimic surgical conditions with leakage of extra cellular matrix (ECM) proteins and growth factors, we cultured rat bone cells ROS 17/2.8 in a bioreactor and harvested the secreted proteins. The secretome was added to rat muscle cells L6. The phenotype of the muscle cells after treatment with the media was assessed using immunostaining and light microscopy. Results. C2C12 cells differentiated into osteoblast-like cells expressing prominent bone markers after seeding on the biomaterial. The conditioned media of the ROS 17/2.8 contained bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2 8.4 ng/mg, standard deviation (. sd. ) 0.8) and BMP-7 (50.6 ng/mg, . sd. 2.2). In vitro, this secretome induced differentiation of skeletal muscle cells L6 towards an osteogenic lineage. Conclusion. Extra cellular matrix proteins and growth factors leaking from a bone cavity, along with a ceramic biomaterial, can synergistically enhance the process of ectopic ossification. The overlaying muscle acts as an osteoinductive niche, and provides the required cells for bone formation. Cite this article: D. B. Raina, A. Gupta, M. M. Petersen, W. Hettwer, M. McNally, M. Tägil, M-H. Zheng, A. Kumar, L. Lidgren. Muscle as an osteoinductive niche for local bone formation with the use of a biphasic calcium sulphate/hydroxyapatite biomaterial. Bone Joint Res 2016;5:500–511. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.510.BJR-2016-0133.R1

Bone loss around replacement prostheses may be related to the activation of mononuclear phagocytes (MNP) by prosthetic wear particles. We investigated how osteoblast-like cells were regulated by human MNP stimulated by particles of prosthetic material. Particles of titanium-6-aluminium-4-vanadium (TiAlV) stimulated MNP to release interleukin (IL)-1β, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)α, IL-6 and prostaglandin E. 2. (PGE. 2. ). All these mediators are implicated in regulating bone metabolism. Particle-activated MNP inhibited bone cell proliferation and stimulated release of IL-6 and PGE. 2. The number of cells expressing alkaline phosphatase, a marker associated with mature osteo-blastic cells, was reduced. Experiments with blocking antibodies showed that TNFα was responsible for the reduction in proliferation and the numbers of cells expressing alkaline phosphatase. By contrast, IL-1β stimulated cell proliferation and differentiation. Both IL-1β and TNFα stimulated IL-6 and PGE. 2. release from the osteoblast-like cells. Our results suggest that particle-activated mono-nuclear phagocytes can induce a change in the balance between bone formation and resorption by a number of mechanisms

Aims. This study aimed to examine the effects of tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) on osteoblasts in metal wear-induced bone loss. Methods. TNF-α immunoexpression was examined in periprosthetic tissues of patients with failed metal-on-metal hip arthroplasties and also in myeloid MM6 cells after treatment with cobalt ions. Viability and function of human osteoblast-like SaOs-2 cells treated with recombinant TNF-α were studied by immunofluorescence, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labelling (TUNEL) assay, western blotting, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Results. Macrophages, lymphocytes, and endothelial cells displayed strong TNF-α immunoexpression in periprosthetic tissues containing metal wear debris. Colocalization of TNF-α with the macrophage marker CD68 and the pan-T cell marker CD3 confirmed TNF-α expression in these cells. Cobalt-treated MM6 cells secreted more TNF-α than control cells, reflecting the role of metal wear products in activating the TNF-α pathway in the myeloid cells. While TNF-α did not alter the immunoexpression of the TNF-receptor 1 (TNF-R1) in SaOs-2 cells, it increased the release of the soluble TNF-receptor 1 (sTNF-R1). There was also evidence for TNF-α-induced apoptosis. TNF-α further elicited the expression of the endoplasmic reticulum stress markers inositol-requiring enzyme (IRE)-1α, binding-immunoglobulin protein (BiP), and endoplasmic oxidoreductin1 (Ero1)-Lα. In addition, TNF-α decreased pro-collagen I α 1 secretion without diminishing its synthesis. TNF-α also induced an inflammatory response in SaOs-2 cells, as evidenced by the release of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species and the proinflammatory cytokine vascular endothelial growth factor. Conclusion. The results suggest a novel osteoblastic mechanism, which could be mediated by TNF-α and may be involved in metal wear debris-induced periprosthetic bone loss. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2020;9(11):827–839

Objectives. The need for bone tissue supplementation exists in a wide range of clinical conditions involving surgical reconstruction in limbs, the spine and skull. The bone supplementation materials currently used include autografts, allografts and inorganic matrix components; but these pose potentially serious side-effects. In particular the availability of the autografts is usually limited and their harvesting causes surgical morbidity. Therefore for the purpose of supplementation of autologous bone graft, we have developed a method for autologous extracorporeal bone generation. Methods. Human osteoblast-like cells were seeded on porous granules of tricalcium phosphate and incubated in osteogenic media while exposed to mechanical stimulation by vibration in the infrasonic range of frequencies. The generated tissue was examined microscopically following haematoxylin eosin, trichrome and immunohistochemical staining. Results. Following 14 days of incubation the generated tissue showed histological characteristics of bone-like material due to the characteristic eosinophilic staining, a positive staining for collagen trichrome and a positive specific staining for osteocalcin and collagen 1. Macroscopically, this tissue appeared in aggregates of between 0.5 cm and 2 cm. . Conclusions. We present evidence that the interaction of the cellular, inorganic and mechanical components in vitro can rapidly generate three-dimensional bone-like tissue that might be used as an autologous bone graft

Macrophages and their fused products are commonly found at the polymethylmethacrylate cement-bone interface, but it is not known if they contribute directly to the osteolysis associated with loosening of the cemented prosthesis. We isolated mononuclear phagocytes from granulomas formed by subcutaneous implantation of polymethylmethacrylate into mice and incubated them on bone slices in which they formed resorption lacunae after co-culture for seven to 14 days with both marrow stromal cells and osteoblast-like cells (in the presence of 1 alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 and dexamethasone). Increased numbers of tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase-positive mononuclear and multinucleated cells formed in these cultures. Both in the presence and absence of stromal cells, macrophages produced extensive superficial roughening of the bone surface. Polymethylmethacrylate-induced macrophages are thus capable of low-grade surface and high-grade lacunar osteolysis, the latter requiring the presence of specific hormonal and stromal cell elements. These two forms of bone resorption could account for the pathogenesis and clinical patterns associated with loosening of the cemented prosthesis

Particulate wear debris can induce the release of bone-resorbing cytokines from cultured macrophages and fibroblasts in vitro, and these mediators are believed to be the cause of the periprosthetic bone resorption which leads to aseptic loosening in vivo. Much less is known about the effects of particulate debris on the growth and metabolism of osteoblastic cells. We exposed two human osteoblast-like cell lines (SaOS-2 and MG-63) to particulate cobalt, chromium and cobalt-chromium alloy at concentrations of 0, 0.01, 0.1 and 1.0 mg/ml. Cobalt was toxic to both cell lines and inhibited the production of type-I collagen, osteocalcin and alkaline phosphatase. Chromium and cobalt-chromium were well tolerated by both cell lines, producing no cytotoxicity and no inhibition of type-I collagen synthesis. At the highest concentration tested (1.0 mg/ml), however, chromium inhibited alkaline phosphatase activity, and both chromium and cobalt-chromium alloy inhibited osteocalcin expression. Our results clearly show that particulate metal debris can modulate the growth and metabolism of osteoblastic cells in vitro. Reduced osteoblastic activity at the bone-implant interface may be an important mechanism by which particulate wear debris influences the pathogenesis of aseptic loosening in vivo

Mononuclear osteoclast precursors are present in the wear-particle-associated macrophage infiltrate found in the membrane surrounding loose implants. These cells are capable of differentiating into osteoclastic bone-resorbing cells when co-cultured with the rat osteoblast-like cell line, UMR 106, in the presence of 1,25(OH). 2. vitamin D. 3. In order to develop an in vitro model of osteoclast differentiation which more closely parallels the cellular microenvironment at the bone-implant interface in situ, we determined whether osteoblast-like human bone-derived cells were capable of supporting the differentiation of osteoclasts from arthroplasty-derived cells and analysed the humoral conditions required for this to occur. Long-term co-culture of arthroplasty-derived cells and human trabecular-bone-derived cells (HBDCs) resulted in the formation of numerous tartrate-resistant-acid-phosphatase (TRAP) and vitronectin-receptor (VNR)-positive multinucleated cells capable of extensive resorption of lacunar bone. The addition of 1,25(OH). 2. vitamin D. 3. was not required for the formation of osteoclasts and bone resorption. During the formation there was release of substantial levels of M-CSF and PGE. 2. Exogenous PGE. 2. (10. −8. to 10. −6. M) was found to stimulate strongly the resorption of osteoclastic bone. Our study has shown that HBDCs are capable of supporting the formation of osteoclasts from mononuclear phagocyte precursors present in the periprosthetic tissues surrounding a loose implant. The release of M-CSF and PGE. 2. by activated cells at the bone-implant interface may be important for the formation of osteoclasts at sites of pathological bone resorption associated with aseptic loosening

A heavy infiltrate of foreign-body macrophages is commonly seen in the fibrous membrane which surrounds an aseptically loose cemented implant. This is in response to particles of polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) bone cement and other biomaterials. We have previously shown that monocytes and macrophages responding to particles of bone cement are capable of differentiating into osteoclastic cells which resorb bone. To determine whether the radio-opaque additives barium sulphate (BaSO. 4. ) and zirconium dioxide (ZrO. 2. ) influence this process, particles of PMMA with and without these agents were added to mouse monocytes and cocultured with osteoblast-like cells on bone slices. Osteoclast differentiation, as shown by the presence of the osteoclast-associated enzyme tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) and lacunar bone resorption, was observed in all cocultures. The addition of PMMA alone to these cocultures caused no increase in TRAP expression or bone resorption relative to control cocultures. Adding PMMA particles containing BaSO. 4. or ZrO. 2. , however, caused an increase in TRAP expression and a highly significant increase in bone resorption. Particles containing BaSO. 4. were associated with 50% more bone resorption than those containing ZrO. 2. . Our results suggest that radio-opaque agents in bone cement may contribute to the bone resorption of aseptic loosening by enhancing macrophage-osteoclast differentiation, and that PMMA containing is BaSO. 4. likely to be associated with more osteolysis than that containing ZrO. 2.

Aims

Tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) are the endogenous inhibitors of the zinc-dependent matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) and A disintegrin and metalloproteinases (ADAM) involved in extracellular matrix modulation. The present study aims to develop the TIMPs as biologics for osteoclast-related disorders.

Aims

There is a lack of biomaterial-based carriers for the local delivery of rifampicin (RIF), one of the cornerstone second defence antibiotics for bone infections. RIF is also known for causing rapid development of antibiotic resistance when given as monotherapy. This in vitro study evaluated a clinically used biphasic calcium sulphate/hydroxyapatite (CaS/HA) biomaterial as a carrier for dual delivery of RIF with vancomycin (VAN) or gentamicin (GEN).

Aims

The aim of this study was to develop a single-layer hybrid organic-inorganic sol-gel coating that is capable of a controlled antibiotic release for cementless hydroxyapatite (HA)-coated titanium orthopaedic prostheses.