Carbon fibre appears to induce the formation of tendon in both animals and humans. Experiments have been conducted in sheep in which new anterior cruciate ligaments have been induced in response to the implantation of filamentous carbon fibre. Long-term studies indicate that the carbon fibre slowly breaks up at the site of implantation and later begins to appear in the regional lymph nodes.

Experiments have been performed on rabbits and sheep which demonstrate that pure carbon, in a flexible and filamentous form of great strength, can be used successfully to induce the formation of new tendons. A concept fundamentally different from that underlying the use of other artificial tendon replacements is involved, in which rapidly developing tendon-like tissue is induced to form around the implant. This gradually takes over the function of the implant. The early results in rabbits and the late results in sheep suggest that filamentous carbon may have a place in the replacement of the calcaneal tendon and the collateral ligaments of the knee

Ligamentous instability of the ankle joint can be confirmed by radiographs taken in two planes. The place of the anteroposterior varus stress view is established, but the lateral view which shows anterior subluxation of the talus is frequently omitted. The anatomical significance of the two stress views has been determined by dividing different components of the lateral ligament of 20 cadaveric ankles and noting the subluxation that resulted from these procedures. A clinical assessment was then made of 54 ankles (46 patients) with radiological evidence of instability when subjected to varus and anterior stress. Anterior subluxation was found to be considerably more common than varus tilt, and it is therefore suggested that the lateral stress view should be an essential part of the investigation of the unstable ankle

We report four children aged two to nine years with traumatic tears of the transverse ligament of the atlas and atlanto-axial subluxation. This is extremely rare in this age group since trauma usually causes a skeletal rather than a ligamentous injury. The injuries resulted from falls or motor vehicle accidents, with considerable delay in diagnosis. Flexion radiographs showed atlas-dens intervals (ADI) of 6, 7, 8 and 13 mm; all four patients were treated by posterior fusion at C1-C2 after the failure of conservative treatment. In one child with quadriparesis and a fixed ADI of 13 mm, transoral anterior resection of the odontoid was performed before the fusion. Diagnosis of this traumatic lesion requires a high level of suspicion. Conservative treatment is likely to fail; surgical stabilisation is indicated

This study aimed to compare the holding strength of various commercially-available anchorage devices for artificial ligaments, so that surgeons might make a reasoned choice. Tensile tests to failure were performed on screws, bollards, toggles and staples which had been implanted into cadaveric bones. The holding strength of all devices correlated significantly with the local thickness of cortical bone, so it is recommended that anchorages should be placed away from the joint line, into diaphyseal bone if possible. A new trans-cortical grommet was developed which, when used around an AO screw, had significantly greater holding strength than the other devices

In a prospective seven-year study, we treated 32 patients with partial ruptures of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) verified by arthroscopy. Twelve knees (38%) progressed to complete ACL deficiency with positive pivot shift tests and increased anteroposterior translation on tests with the KT-1000 arthrometer. Patients with partial ACL tears frequently had limitation for strenuous sports, while those developing ACL deficiency had additional functional limitations involving recreational activities. Three factors were statistically significant in predicting which partial tears would develop complete ACL deficiency: the amount of ligament tearing--one-fourth tears infrequently progressed, one-half tears progressed in 50% and three-fourth tears in 86%; a subtle increase in initial anterior translation; and the occurrence of a subsequent re-injury with giving-way

We report 14 cases of symptomatic ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament (OPLL) diagnosed in non-oriental men between 1978 and 1985. All 14 patients had incomplete spinal cord syndromes due to OPLL in the cervical spine and had been referred undiagnosed from other institutions. Twelve had severe myelopathy and seven were wheelchair-bound before OPLL was diagnosed, while six patients had had operations elsewhere for their neurological dysfunction. There was a close association between OPLL and diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (Forestier's disease) on plain radiographs, seven patients having both disorders. Enhanced CT scans proved to be the best diagnostic method for the localisation of cord compression, and magnetic resonance imaging, used on four recent cases, provided the best visualisation of the extent of involvement in the sagittal plane. We aim to heighten awareness of OPLL in non-orientals, in whom the clinical features, histological characteristics, and radiographic patterns are very similar to those of oriental patients

Consecutive patients with a confirmed rupture of at least one of the lateral ligaments of the ankle were randomly assigned to receive either operative or functional treatment. They were evaluated at a median of 8 years (6 to 11). In total, 370 patients were included. Follow-up was available for 317 (86%). Fewer patients allocated to operative treatment reported residual pain compared with those who had been allocated to functional treatment (16% versus 25%, RR 0.64, CI 041 to 1.0). Fewer surgically-treated patients reported symptoms of giving way (20% versus 32%, RR 0.62, CI 0.42 to 0.92) and recurrent sprains (22% versus 34%, RR 0.66, CI 0.45 to 0.94). The anterior drawer test was less frequently positive in surgically-treated patients (30% versus 54%, RR 0.54, CI 0.41 to 0.72). The median Povacz score was significantly higher in the operative group (26 versus 22, p < 0.001). Compared with functional treatment, operative treatment gives a better long-term outcome in terms of residual pain, recurrent sprains and stability

Seven subjects with normal joints were tested for active and passive position sense of ankle inversion, peroneal reflex reaction time to sudden ankle inversion, and postural stability during single-leg stance. The tests were performed before and after regional block of the ankle and foot with local anaesthetic. Passive position sense, assessed with the muscles relaxed, was greatly impaired by anaesthesia but active position sense, with the calf muscles activated, was preserved, and the peroneal reaction time to sudden ankle inversion was not altered. The magnitude of postural sway during single-leg stance was also unchanged by anaesthesia of the ankle and foot. The results suggest that the afferent input from intact lateral ankle ligaments is important in sensing correct placement of the foot at heel-strike, but that this input can be replaced by afferent information from active calf muscles. Afferent input from these muscles seems also to be responsible for dynamic ankle protection against sudden ankle inversion and is adequate to allow stable single-leg stance

We analysed the long-term results with a mean follow-up of 10.2 years, of 66 total knee replacements in 42 patients with rheumatoid arthritis. In all cases the posterior cruciate ligament was retained. There were only three complications (4.5%). Revision surgery was necessary in five knees (7.6%), including one (1.5%) with infection. At the final follow-up, 75.8% of knees were rated excellent clinically. Only 15% had an excellent function score. The survival rate of the implant was 90.7% at 19 years. The clinical, radiological and survivorship analysis shows that the posterior-cruciate-retaining knee arthroplasty performs well in rheumatoid arthritis

Aims

There is a lack of long-term data for minimally invasive acromioclavicular (AC) joint repair. Furthermore, it is not clear if good early clinical results can be maintained over time. The purpose of this study was to report long-term results of minimally invasive AC joint reconstruction (MINAR) and compare it to corresponding short-term data.

We assessed arthroscopically 22 young athletes with an isolated acute posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) injury. Four had significant damage to the articular cartilage of the medial femorotibial compartment and were advised not to resume sports. Three underwent PCL reconstruction because of a reparable meniscal tear or instability. The other 15 were treated conservatively and resumed sport. At an average follow-up of 51 months, one had developed arthritic symptoms due to newly-developed severe chondral damage to the medial femoral condyle, but none of the other 14 had developed arthritic symptoms and most remained athletically active. Severe chondral damage should be seen at an early arthroscopy. Knees with an isolated injury to the PCL with concomitant articular damage may be successfully managed by conservative treatment

We studied retrospectively a consecutive series of 547 shoulders in 529 patients undergoing operation for instability. In 41, the cause of instability was considered to be lateral avulsion of the capsule, including the inferior glenohumeral ligament, from the neck of the humerus, the HAGL lesion. In 35, the lesion was found at first exploration, whereas in six it was noted at revision of a previous failed procedure. In both groups, the patients were older on average than those with instability from other causes. Of the primary cases, in 33 (94.3%) the cause of the first dislocation was a violent injury; six (17.4%) had evidence of damage to the rotator cuff and/or the subscapularis. Only four (11.4%) had a Bankart lesion. In patients undergoing a primary operation in whom the cause of the first dislocation was a violent injury, who did not have a Bankart lesion and had no suggestion of multidirectional laxity, the incidence of HAGL was 39%

In this retrospective study, we assessed the outcome in 99 patients who underwent reconstruction of the lateral ligaments of the ankle for chronic anterolateral instability with a minimum follow-up of 15 years. Two techniques were compared: 54 patients had an anatomical reconstruction (AR group) and 45 had an Evans tenodesis (ET group). They were followed up for 19.9 ± 3.6 years and 21.8 ± 4.6 years, respectively. During follow-up, seven patients in the AR group and 17 in the ET group required a further operation (p = 0.004). At follow-up, significantly more patients (n = 15) in the ET group had limited dorsiflexion than in the AR group (n = 6, p = 0.007) and 18 in the ET group had a positive anterior drawer test compared with seven in the AR group (p = 0002). In the ET group 27 had tenderness on palpation of the ankle compared with 15 in the AR group (p = 0.001). Stress radiographs showed ligamentous laxity significantly more often in the ET group (n = 30) than in the AR group (n = 13, p < 0.001). The mean values for talar tilt and anterior talar translation were significantly higher in the ET group than in the AR group (p < 0.001, p = 0.007, respectively). There were degenerative changes on standard radiographs in 32 patients in the AR group and 35 in the ET group (p = 0.05). Four patients in the ET group had developed severe osteoarthritis compared with none in the AR group (p = 0.025). Assessment of functional stability revealed a mean Karlsson score of 83.7 ± 10.4 points in the AR group and 67.0 ± 15.8 points in the ET group (p < 0.001). According to the Good rating system, 43 patients in the AR group had good or excellent results compared with 15 in the ET group (p < 0.001). Compared with anatomical reconstruction, the Evans tenodesis does not prevent laxity in a large number of patients. Long-standing ligamentous laxity leads to degenerative change in the ankle, resulting in chronic pain, limited dorsiflexion and further operations. The functional result deteriorates more rapidly after the Evans tenodesis than after anatomical reconstruction

In this series, 15 patients with ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament underwent anterior decompression to relieve moderate or severe myelopathy, which in 11 included urinary disturbance. The operation consisted of partial resection of the vertebrae, release of the ossified plaque from the surrounding tissue and the insertion of an iliac bone graft. The extent of ossification was confirmed by computerised tomography before and after operation. The plaque was completely detached and moved forward in half of the patients, but only partially moved in the remainder. Symptoms improved considerably. Urinary disturbance disappeared in all patients, but sensory disturbance was left in most. Two patients had prolonged symptoms which were not relieved despite the complete release of the ossified defect

Ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament in the cervical region is generally regarded as a rare disease, though a Japanese series of 185 cases has been reported. The main symptoms arise from a myelopathy, the degree of which varies from moderate to severe, due to stenosis of the spinal canal. In order to clarify the relationship between the severity of symptoms and the cross-sectional area of ossification, axial transverse tomography of the cervical spine has been carried out on twenty-six patients at intervals of 5 millimetres over the full extent of the ossification. In this way the cross-sectional areas of the ossified tissue and of the spinal canal were calculated. The former varied from a minimum of 0.8 to a maximum of 1.8 square centimetres. In cases of severe myelopathy the ossification was mainly at the fourth and fifth cervical levels and the stenosis ration exceeded 30 per cent

This work studied the fibre bundle anatomy of the anterior cruciate ligament. Three functional bundles--anteromedial, intermediate, and posterolateral--were identified in cadaver knees. Their contributions to resisting anterior subluxation in flexion and extension were found by repeated tests after sequential bundle transection. Changes of length in flexion and extension and in tibial rotation were measured. None of the fibres were isometric. The posterolateral bundle was stretched in extension and the anteromedial in flexion, which correlated with increased contributions to knee stability and the likelihood of partial ruptures in these positions. Tibial rotation had no significant effect. The fibre length changes suggested that the 'isometric point' aimed at by some ligament replacements lay anterior and superior to the femoral origin of the intermediate fibre bundle and towards the roof of the intercondylar notch

We have described a method of anatomical reconstruction of the lateral ligaments of the ankles with instability using allogeneic fascia lata dried with solvents and sterilised with gamma irradiation. Twenty ankles of 20 patients were assessed objectively and subjectively after a mean follow-up of 4.2 years (3.1 to 10). The result was excellent in 12 (60%), good in seven (35%) and fair in one (5%); none had a poor result. Stress radiography showed that the angle of talar tilt improved from 12.3 ± 4.2° (mean ±. sd. ) to 5.9 ± 3.0° and that the anterior drawer distance decreased from 9.2 ± 3.9 mm to 4.4 ± 2.5 mm. Neither infection nor limitation of movement occurred after operation. Fascia lata allografts provide a good alternative to autogenous grafts such as the peroneus brevis tendon

The role of flexible carbon-fibre implants as substitutes for injured tendons and ligaments was investigated. These implants were simple to perform and were well tolerated by the patient. Repairs using carbon-fibres in 60 patients were successful, particularly in the almost insoluble problem of posterior cruciate laxity. The results in this report show that carbon-fibre implants have few disadvantages and have a future use in reconstructive procedures

We report on the long-term results of 163 bicruciate-retaining Hermes 2C total knee replacements in 130 patients at a mean follow-up of 22.4 years (20.3 to 23.5). Even when the anterior cruciate ligament had a partially degenerative appearance it was preserved as long as the knee had a normal anterior drawer and Lachman’s test pre-operatively. The description and surgical technique of this minimally constrained prosthesis were published in 1983 and the ten-year clinical results in 1999.

A total of 12% of the knees (20 of 163) in this study were revised because of wear of the polyethylene tibial insert. Excellent stability was achieved and the incidence of aseptic component loosening was 4.3% (seven of 163). The survival rate using revision for any reason as the endpoint was 82% (95% confidence interval 76.2 to 88.0).

Although this series included a relatively small number of replacements, it demonstrated that the anterior cruciate ligament, even when partially degenerated at the time of TKR, remained functional and provided adequate stability at a long-term follow-up.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:917–22.