Aims. The aim of the Scaphoid Waist Internal Fixation for Fractures Trial (SWIFFT) was to determine the optimal treatment for adults with a bicortical undisplaced or minimally displaced fracture of the waist of the scaphoid, comparing early surgical fixation with initial cast immobilization, with immediate fixation being offered to patients with nonunion. Methods. A cost-effectiveness analysis was conducted to assess the relative merits of these forms of treatment. The differences in costs to the healthcare system and quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) of the patients over the one-year follow-up of the trial in the two treatment arms were estimated using regression analysis. Results. Our base case analysis found that patients randomized to early surgical fixation had statistically significantly higher mean costs to the NHS of £1,295 more than for the cast immobilization arm (p < 0.001), primarily due to the cost of surgery. They also had a marginally better quality of life, over the period, of 0.0158 QALYs; however, this was not statistically significant (p = 0.379). The mean combined cost per additional QALY was £81,962, well above the accepted threshold for cost-effectiveness used in the UK and internationally. The probability of early surgery being cost-effective in this setting was only 5.6%. Conclusion. Consistent with the clinical findings of SWIFFT, these results indicate that initial cast immobilization of minimally displaced scaphoid fractures, with immediate fixation only offered to patients with nonunion, is the optimal form of treatment, resulting in comparable outcomes with less cost to the healthcare system. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2021;103-B(7):1277–1283

Aims

There has been an increasing use of early operative fixation for scaphoid fractures, despite uncertain evidence. We conducted a meta-analysis to evaluate up-to-date evidence from randomized controlled trials (RCTs), comparing the effectiveness of the operative and nonoperative treatment of undisplaced and minimally displaced (≤ 2 mm displacement) scaphoid fractures.

Traditionally, patients with a fracture of the distal radius are treated in a cast if they do not require surgery. If the fracture requires manipulation, the cast is moulded to hold the reduction and maintain normal anatomical alignment during healing. However, is a cast necessary for patients whose fracture does not require manipulation? Removable splints are an alternative treatment option. Such splints have the advantage that they can be adjusted to improve fit around the wrist as swelling reduces, and can be removed and reapplied for the purpose of washing or, in some cases, exercise. However, evidence for their safety and effectiveness in the management of distal radius fractures is lacking. DRAFT3 is a multicentre randomized non-inferiority trial and economic analysis designed to determine the safety and effectiveness of removable splints as an alternative to casts in the treatment of distal radius fractures that do not require manipulation. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2025;107-B(1):7–9

Aims. The aim of this study was to compare the longer-term outcomes of operatively and nonoperatively managed patients treated with a removable brace (fixed-angle removable orthosis) or a plaster cast immobilization for an acute ankle fracture. Methods. This is a secondary analysis of a multicentre randomized controlled trial comparing adults with an acute ankle fracture, initially managed either by operative or nonoperative care. Patients were randomly allocated to receive either a cast immobilization or a fixed-angle removable orthosis (removable brace). Data were collected on baseline characteristics, ankle function, quality of life, and complications. The Olerud-Molander Ankle Score (OMAS) was the primary outcome which was used to measure the participant’s ankle function. The primary endpoint was at 16 weeks, with longer-term follow-up at 24 weeks and two years. Results. Overall, 436 patients (65%) completed the final two-year follow-up. The mean difference in OMAS at two years was -0.3 points favouring the plaster cast (95% confidence interval -3.9 to 3.4), indicating no statistically significant difference between the interventions. There was no evidence of differences in patient quality of life (measured using the EuroQol five-dimension five-level questionnaire) or Disability Rating Index. Conclusion. This study demonstrated that patients treated with a removable brace had similar outcomes to those treated with a plaster cast in the first two years after injury. A removable brace is an effective alternative to traditional immobilization in a plaster cast for patients with an ankle fracture. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2023;105-B(4):382–388

Aims. It is unclear if a supportive bandage, removable splint, or walking cast offers the best outcome following low-risk ankle fractures in children. The aim of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of a randomized controlled trial to compare these treatments. Methods. Children aged five to 15 years with low-risk ankle fractures were recruited to this feasibility trial from 1 February 2020 to 30 March 2023. Children were randomized to supportive bandage, removable splint, or walking cast for two weeks. Follow-up at two, six, and 12 weeks was undertaken to determine feasibility for a definitive trial. Outcomes collected included complications, the Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) mobility score, Paediatric Quality of Life Inventory, youth version of the EuroQol five-dimension health questionnaire, and Activities Scale for Kids - Performance. Results. A total of 87 children from six hospitals were randomized at a rate of 0.9 participants per site per month. Two children in the supportive bandage group crossed over to an alternative device. Complications were reported in six children. One child in the cast group developed skin blisters. One child in cast and one in bandage sustained a reinjury during the 12-week follow-up, and two children (one splint and one cast) required additional immobilization after the two-week treatment for persistent pain. Of the 84 participants who remained in the study at six weeks, 43 (51.2%) returned follow-up questionnaires at six weeks. Of the patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs), proxy-reported PROMIS mobility showed good responsiveness, low ceiling effects, and low missing item rates. In an exploratory analysis, small differences were observed between groups, with no evidence that any of the treatments were superior. Conclusion. This feasibility study showed acceptable recruitment and retention rates. There remains equipoise regarding the best treatment of these injuries. All three treatments appear well tolerated with similar complication rates. A primary outcome of complications or treatment failure would provide the highest study retention with secondary PROMs and economic analysis. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2025;107-B(1):108–117

Aims. It is not clear which type of casting provides the best initial treatment in adults with a distal radial fracture. Given that between 32% and 64% of adequately reduced fractures redisplace during immobilization in a cast, preventing redisplacement and a disabling malunion or secondary surgery is an aim of treatment. In this study, we investigated whether circumferential casting leads to fewer fracture redisplacements and better one-year outcomes compared to plaster splinting. Methods. In a pragmatic, open-label, multicentre, two-period cluster-randomized superiority trial, we compared these two types of casting. Recruitment took place in ten hospitals. Eligible patients aged ≥ 18 years with a displaced distal radial fracture, which was acceptably aligned after closed reduction, were included. The primary outcome measure was the rate of redisplacement within five weeks of immobilization. Secondary outcomes were the rate of complaints relating to the cast, clinical outcomes at three months, patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) (using the numerical rating scale (NRS), the abbreviated version of the Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand (QuickDASH), and Patient-Rated Wrist/Hand Evaluation (PRWHE) scores), and adverse events such as the development of compartment syndrome during one year of follow-up. We used multivariable mixed-effects logistic regression for the analysis of the primary outcome measure. Results. The study included 420 patients. There was no significant difference between the rate of redisplacement of the fracture between the groups: 47% (n = 88) for those treated with a plaster splint and 49% (n = 90) for those treated with a circumferential cast (odds ratio 1.05 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.65 to 1.70); p = 0.854). Patients treated in a plaster splint reported significantly more pain than those treated with a circumferential cast, during the first week of treatment (estimated mean NRS 4.7 (95% CI 4.3 to 5.1) vs 4.1 (95% CI 3.7 to 4.4); p = 0.014). The rate of complaints relating to the cast, clinical outcomes and PROMs did not differ significantly between the groups (p > 0.05). Compartment syndrome did not occur. Conclusion. Circumferential casting did not result in a significantly different rate of redisplacement of the fracture compared with the use of a plaster splint. There were comparable outcomes in both groups. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2024;106-B(7):696–704

Aims. The primary aim of this study was to report the radiological outcomes of patients with a dorsally displaced distal radius fracture who were randomized to a moulded cast or surgical fixation with wires following manipulation and closed reduction of their fracture. The secondary aim was to correlate radiological outcomes with patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) in the year following injury. Methods. Participants were recruited as part of DRAFFT2, a UK multicentre clinical trial. Participants were aged 16 years or over with a dorsally displaced distal radius fracture, and were eligible for the trial if they needed a manipulation of their fracture, as recommended by their treating surgeon. Participants were randomly allocated on a 1:1 ratio to moulded cast or Kirschner wires after manipulation of the fracture in the operating theatre. Standard posteroanterior and lateral radiographs were performed in the radiology department of participating centres at the time of the patient’s initial assessment in the emergency department and six weeks postoperatively. Intraoperative fluoroscopic images taken at the time of fracture reduction were also assessed. Results. Patients treated with surgical fixation with wires had less dorsal angulation of the radius versus those treated in a moulded cast at six weeks after manipulation of the fracture; the mean difference of -4.13° was statistically significant (95% confidence interval 5.82 to -2.45). There was no evidence of a difference in radial shortening. However, there was no correlation between these radiological measurements and PROMs at any timepoint in the 12 months post-injury. Conclusion. For patients with a dorsally displaced distal radius fracture treated with a closed manipulation, surgical fixation with wires leads to less dorsal angulation on radiographs at six weeks compared with patients treated in a moulded plaster cast alone. However, the difference in dorsal angulation was small and did not correlate with patient-reported pain and function. Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2024;5(2):132–138

Aims. The aim of this study was to assess and compare active rotation of the forearm in normal subjects after the application of a short-arm cast (SAC) in the semisupination position and a long-arm cast (LAC) in the neutral position. A clinical study was also conducted to compare the functional outcomes of using a SAC in the semisupination position with those of using a LAC in the neutral position in patients who underwent arthroscopic triangular fibrocartilage complex (TFCC) foveal repair. Methods. A total of 40 healthy right-handed volunteers were recruited. Active pronation and supination of the forearm were measured in each subject using a goniometer. In the retrospective clinical study, 40 patients who underwent arthroscopic foveal repair were included. The wrist was immobilized postoperatively using a SAC in the semisupination position (approximately 45°) in 16 patients and a LAC in 24. Clinical outcomes were assessed using grip strength and patient-reported outcomes. The degree of disability caused by cast immobilization was also evaluated when the cast was removed. Results. Supination was significantly more restricted with LACs than with SACs in the semisupination position in male and female patients (p < 0.001 for both). However, pronation was significantly more restricted with SACs in the semisupination position than with LACs in female patients (p = 0.003) and was not significantly different in male patients (p = 0.090). In the clinical study, both groups showed improvement in all parameters with significant differences in grip strength, visual analogue scale scores for pain, modified Mayo Wrist Score, the Disability of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand (DASH) score, and the Patient-Rated Wrist Evaluation (PRWE) score. No significant postoperative differences were noted between LACs and SACs in the semisupination position. However, the disability caused by immobilization in a cast was significantly higher in patients who had a LAC on the dominant hand (p < 0.001). Conclusion. We found that a SAC in the semisupination position is as effective as a LAC in restricting pronation of the forearm. In addition, postoperative immobilization with a SAC in the semisupination position resulted in comparable pain scores and functional outcomes to immobilization with a LAC after TFCC foveal repair, with less restriction of daily activities. Therefore, we recommend that surgeons consider using a SAC in the semisupination position for postoperative immobilization following TFCC foveal repair for dorsal instability of the distal radioulnar joint. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2022;104-B(2):249–256

Aims. To compare the cost-utility of removable brace compared with cast in the management of adult patients with ankle fracture. Methods. A within-trial economic evaluation conducted from the UK NHS and personnel social services (PSS) perspective. Health resources and quality-of-life data were collected as part of the Ankle Injury Rehabilitation (AIR) multicentre, randomized controlled trial over a 12-month period using trial case report forms and patient-completed questionnaires. Cost-utility analysis was estimated in terms of the incremental cost per quality adjusted life year (QALY) gained. Estimate uncertainty was explored by bootstrapping, visualized on the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio plane. Net monetary benefit and probability of cost-effectiveness were evaluated at a range of willingness-to-pay thresholds and visualized graphically. Results. The incremental cost and QALYs of using brace over a 12-month period were £46.73 (95% confidence interval (CI) £-9 to £147) and 0.0141 (95% CI -0.005 to 0.033), respectively. The cost per QALY gained was £3,318. The probability of brace being cost-effective at a £30,000 per QALY willingness-to-pay threshold was 88%. The results remained robust to a range of sensitivity analyses. Conclusion. This within-trial economic evaluation found that it is probable that using a removable brace provides good value to the NHS when compared to cast, in the management of adults with ankle fracture. Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2022;3(6):455–462

Aims. There is no level I evidence dealing with the optimal period of immobilization for patients with a displaced distal radial fracture following closed reduction. A shorter period might lead to a better functional outcome due to less stiffness and pain. The aim of this study was to investigate whether this period could be safely reduced from six to four weeks. Methods. This multicentre randomized controlled trial (RCT) included adult patients with a displaced distal radial fracture, who were randomized to be treated with immobilization in a cast for four or six weeks following closed reduction. The primary outcome measure was the Patient-Rated Wrist Evaluation (PRWE) score after follow-up at one year. Secondary outcomes were the abbreviated version of the Disability of Arm, Shoulder and Hand (QuickDASH) score after one year, the functional outcome at six weeks, 12 weeks, and six months, range of motion (ROM), the level of pain after removal of the cast, and complications. Results. A total of 100 patients (15 male, 85 female) were randomized, with 49 being treated with four weeks of immobilization in a cast. A total of 93 completed follow-up. The mean PRWE score after one year was 6.9 (SD 8.3) in the four-week group compared with 11.6 (SD 14.3) in the six-week group. However, this difference of -4.7 (95% confidence interval -9.29 to 0.14) was not clinically relevant as the minimal clinically important difference of 11.5 was not reached. There was no significant difference in the ROM, radiological outcome, level of pain, or complications. Conclusion. In adult patients with a displaced and adequately reduced distal radial fracture, immobilization in a cast for four weeks is safe, and the results are similar to those after a period of immobilization of six weeks. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2023;105-B(9):993–999

Aims. Treatment of Weber B ankle fractures that are stable on weightbearing radiographs but unstable on concomitant stress tests (classified SER4a) is controversial. Recent studies indicate that these fractures should be treated nonoperatively, but no studies have compared alternative nonoperative options. This study aims to evaluate patient-reported outcomes and the safety of fracture treatment using functional orthosis versus cast immobilization. Methods. A total of 110 patients with Weber B/SER4a ankle fractures will be randomized (1:1 ratio) to receive six weeks of functional orthosis treatment or cast immobilization with a two-year follow-up. The primary outcome is patient-reported ankle function and symptoms measured by the Manchester-Oxford Foot and Ankle Questionnaire (MOxFQ); secondary outcomes include Olerud-Molander Ankle Score, radiological evaluation of ankle congruence in weightbearing and gravity stress tests, and rates of treatment-related adverse events. The Regional Committee for Medical and Health Research (approval number 277693) has granted ethical approval, and the study is funded by South-Eastern Norway Regional Health Authority (grant number 2023014). Discussion. Randomized controlled trials are needed to evaluate alternative nonoperative treatment options for Weber B/SER4a ankle fractures, as current clinical guidelines are based on biomechanical reasoning. The findings will be shared through publication in peer-reviewed journals and presentations at conferences. Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2023;4(9):713–719

Aims. The management of fractures of the medial epicondyle is one of the greatest controversies in paediatric fracture care, with uncertainty concerning the need for surgery. The British Society of Children’s Orthopaedic Surgery prioritized this as their most important research question in paediatric trauma. This is the protocol for a randomized controlled, multicentre, prospective superiority trial of operative fixation versus nonoperative treatment for displaced medial epicondyle fractures: the Surgery or Cast of the EpicoNdyle in Children’s Elbows (SCIENCE) trial. Methods. Children aged seven to 15 years old inclusive, who have sustained a displaced fracture of the medial epicondyle, are eligible to take part. Baseline function using the Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) upper limb score, pain measured using the Wong Baker FACES pain scale, and quality of life (QoL) assessed with the EuroQol five-dimension questionnaire for younger patients (EQ-5D-Y) will be collected. Each patient will be randomly allocated (1:1, stratified using a minimization algorithm by centre and initial elbow dislocation status (i.e. dislocated or not-dislocated at presentation to the emergency department)) to either a regimen of the operative fixation or non-surgical treatment. Outcomes. At six weeks, and three, six, and 12 months, data on function, pain, sports/music participation, QoL, immobilization, and analgesia will be collected. These will also be repeated annually until the child reaches the age of 16 years. Four weeks after injury, the main outcomes plus data on complications, resource use, and school absence will be collected. The primary outcome is the PROMIS upper limb score at 12 months post-randomization. All data will be obtained through electronic questionnaires completed by the participants and/or parents/guardians. The NHS number of participants will be stored to enable future data linkage to sources of routinely collected data (i.e. Hospital Episode Statistics). Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2024;5(1):69–77

Aims. The aim of this study was to compare the cost-effectiveness of surgical fixation with Kirschner (K-)wire ersus moulded casting after manipulation of a fracture of the distal radius in an operating theatre setting. Methods. An economic evaluation was conducted based on data collected from the Distal Radius Acute Fracture Fixation Trial 2 (DRAFFT2) multicentre randomized controlled trial in the UK. Resource use was collected at three, six, and 12 months post-randomization using trial case report forms and participant-completed questionnaires. Cost-effectiveness was reported in terms of incremental cost per quality-adjusted life year (QALY) gained from an NHS and personal social services perspective. Sensitivity analyses were conducted to examine the robustness of cost-effectiveness estimates, and decision uncertainty was handled using confidence ellipses and cost-effectiveness acceptability curves. Results. In the base case analysis, surgical fixation with K-wire was more expensive (£29.65 (95% confidence interval (CI) -94.85 to 154.15)) and generated lower QALYs (0.007 (95% CI -0.03 to 0.016)) than moulded casting, but this difference was not statistically significant. The probability of K-wire being cost-effective at a £20,000 per QALY cost-effectiveness threshold was 24%. The cost-effectiveness results remained robust in the sensitivity analyses. Conclusion. The findings suggest that surgical fixation with K-wire is unlikely to be a cost-effective alternative to a moulded cast in adults, following manipulation of a fracture of the distal radius in a theatre setting. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2022;104-B(11):1225–1233

Aims. The study was undertaken to compare the efficacy of Woodcast splints and plaster-of-Paris casts in maintaining correction following sequential manipulation of idiopathic clubfeet. Methods. In this randomized prospective trial, 23 idiopathic clubfeet were immobilized with plaster-of-Paris casts and 23 clubfeet were immobilized with a splint made of Woodcast that encircled only two-thirds the circumference of the limb. The number of casts or splints needed to obtain full correction, the frequency of cast or splint-related complications, and the time taken for application and removal of the casts and splints were compared. Results. The mean number of casts required to obtain full correction of the deformity (Pirani Score 0) was 4.35 (95% confidence interval (CI) 3.74 to 4.95) when plaster-of-Paris was used and 4.87 (95% CI 4.33 to 5.41) when the Woodcast splint was used (p = 0.190). The time required for application and removal of the Woodcast splint were significantly less than that required for application and removal of plaster-of-Paris casts (p < 0.001). Woodcast splint-related complications were not more frequent than plaster-of-Paris cast related complications. Conclusion. Though Woodcast splints covering two-thirds of the circumference of the lower limbs of infants were effective in maintaining the correction of clubfoot deformity during serial manipulation and casting treatment, the superiority of Woodcasts over plaster-of-Paris could not be established. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2020;102-B(10):1399–1404

Aims. To our knowledge, there is currently no information available about the rate of venous thromboembolism (VTE) or recommendations regarding chemoprophylaxis for patients whose lower limb is immobilized in a plaster cast. We report a retrospective case series assessing the rate of symptomatic VTE in patients treated with a lower limb cast. Given the complex, heterogeneous nature of this group of patients, with many risk factors for VTE, we hypothesized that the rate of VTE would be higher than in the general population. Patients and Methods. Patients treated with a lower limb cast between 2006 and 2018 were identified using plaster room records. Their electronic records and radiological reports were reviewed for details about their cast, past medical history, and any VTE recorded in our hospital within a year of casting. Results. There were 136 episodes of casting in 100 patients. The mean age was 55 years (22 to 91). The mean time in a cast was 45 days (five days to eight months). A total of 76 patients had neuropathy secondary to diabetes. No patient received chemical thromboprophylaxis while in a cast. One VTE (0.7% of casting episodes) was documented. This was confirmed by Doppler scan nine days after removing the cast. Conclusion. The frequency of VTE was higher than that of the general population (0.05%); this is most likely attributable to our patients’ apparent increase in VTE risk as suggested by The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). These findings suggest that thromboprophylaxis is not routinely indicated in patients who undergo immobilization of the lower limb in a cast, although the risks of VTE should be assessed. While the cast itself does not pose an increased risk, other pathologies, such as active cancer, mean that each individual case needs to be considered on their merit. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2019;101-B:691–694

Fractures of the forearm (radius or ulna or both) in children have traditionally been immobilised in plaster of Paris (POP) but synthetic cast materials are becoming more popular. There have been no randomised studies comparing the efficacy of these two materials. The aim of this study was to investigate which cast material is superior for the management of these fractures. We undertook a single-centre prospective randomised trial involving 199 patients with acute fractures of the forearm requiring general anaesthesia for reduction. Patients were randomised by sealed envelope into either a POP or synthetic group and then underwent routine closed reduction and immobilisation in a cast. The patients were reviewed at one and six weeks. A satisfaction questionnaire was completed following the removal of the cast. All clinical complications were recorded and the cast indices were calculated. There was an increase in complications in the POP group. These complications included soft areas of POP requiring revision and loss of reduction with some requiring re-manipulation. There was an increased mean padding index in the fractures that lost reduction. Synthetic casts were preferred by the patients. This study indicates that the clinical outcomes and patient satisfaction are superior using synthetic casts with no reduction in safety. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:1285–9

We investigated whether, in the management of stable paediatric fractures of the forearm, flexible casts that can be removed at home are as clinically effective, cost-effective and acceptable to both patient and parent as management using a cast conventionally removed in hospital. A single-centre randomised controlled trial was performed on 317 children with a mean age of 9.3 years (2 to 16). No significant differences were seen in the change in Childhood Health Assessment Questionnaire index score (p = 0.10) or EuroQol 5-Dimensions domain scores between the two groups one week after removal of the cast or the absolute scores at six months. There was a significantly lower overall median treatment cost in the group whose casts were removed at home (£150.88 (. sem. 1.90) vs £251.62 (. sem. 2.68); p <  0.001). No difference was seen in satisfaction between the two groups (p = 0.48). Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:1714–20

We assessed the unloading effect of the patellar tendon-bearing (PTB) cast in five healthy volunteers using a new system for analysis of dynamic plantar pressure. We devised a method to improve the unloading effect of the PTB cast, and tested this using the same system. Our findings showed that the conventional PTB cast only achieved unloading of 30% of the body-weight and that the part of the cast on the leg had a more important role in the unloading than that which was in contact with the patellar tendon. When the depth of the free space under the foot inside the PTB cast was 1, 2 and 3 cm, the unloading effect was 60%, 80% and 98%, respectively. The unloading effect of the conventional PTB cast was disappointing at only 30% of body-weight. It was improved by producing a space between the sole of the foot and the cast, and was adjustable by altering the depth of this space

Forearm fractures in children have a tendency to displace in a cast leading to malunion with reduced functional and cosmetic results. In order to identify risk factors for displacement, a total of 247 conservatively treated fractures of the forearm in 246 children with a mean age of 7.3 years (. sd. 3.2; 0.9 to 14.9) were included in a prospective multicentre study. Multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed to assess risk factors for displacement of reduced or non-reduced fractures in the cast. Displacement occurred in 73 patients (29.6%), of which 65 (89.0%) were in above-elbow casts. The mean time between the injury and displacement was 22.7 days (0 to 59). The independent factors found to significantly increase the risk of displacement were a fracture of the non-dominant arm (p = 0.024), a complete fracture (p = 0.040), a fracture with translation of the ulna on lateral radiographs (p = 0.014) and shortening of the fracture (p = 0.019). Fractures of both forearm bones in children have a strong tendency to displace even in an above-elbow cast. Severe fractures of the non-dominant arm are at highest risk for displacement. Radiographs at set times during treatment might identify early displacement, which should be treated before malunion occurs, especially in older children with less potential for remodelling. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:689–93

Aims. The purpose of this study was to compare symptomatic treatment of a fracture of the base of the fifth metatarsal with immobilisation in a cast. Our null hypothesis was that immobilisation gave better patient reported outcome measures (PROMs). The alternative hypothesis was that symptomatic treatment was not inferior. Patients and Methods. A total of 60 patients were randomised to receive four weeks of treatment, 36 in a double elasticated bandage (symptomatic treatment group) and 24 in a below-knee walking cast (immobilisation group). The primary outcome measure used was the validated Visual Analogue Scale Foot and Ankle (VAS-FA) Score. Data were analysed by a clinician, blinded to the form of treatment, at presentation and at four weeks, three months and six months after injury. Loss to follow-up was 43% at six months. Multiple imputations missing data analysis was performed. Results. At four weeks and six months, symptomatic treatment proved non-inferior in terms of primary outcome. Take home message: Immobilisation is no better than symptomatic treatment in the management of a fracture of the base of the fifth metatarsal when judged by PROMs. Significant loss to follow-up with this injury could be expected in longer term. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2016;98-B:806–11

We report an audit of 208 patients with a mean age of 39 years (16 to 65) attending the Orthopaedic Assessment Unit at the Wellington Hospital between January 2006 and December 2007 with an injury of the tendo Achillis requiring immobilisation in a cast. Information on assessment of venous thromboembolism (VTE) risk, prophylactic measures and VTE events for all patients was obtained from the medical records. A VTE risk factor was documented in the records of three (1%) patients. One of the 208 patients received aspirin prophylaxis; none received low molecular weight heparin. In all, 13 patients (6.3%, 95% confidence interval 3.4 to 10.5) developed symptomatic VTE during immobilisation in a cast, including six with a distal deep-vein thrombosis (DVT), four with a proximal DVT, and three with a confirmed pulmonary embolus. This incidence of symptomatic VTE is similar to that reported following elective hip replacement. We propose that consideration is given to VTE prophylaxis during prolonged immobilisation of the lower limbs in a cast, to ensure that the same level of protection is provided as for patients undergoing elective hip replacement

Aims. Our aim was to assess the effectiveness of a protocol involving a standardised closed reduction for the treatment of children with developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH) in maintaining reduction and to report the mid-term results. Methods. A total of 133 hips in 120 children aged less than two years who underwent closed reduction, with a minimum follow-up of five years or until subsequent surgery, were included in the study. The protocol defines the criteria for an acceptable reduction and the indications for a concomitant soft-tissue release. All children were immobilised in a short- leg cast for three months. Arthrograms were undertaken at the time of closed reduction and six weeks later. Follow-up radiographs were taken at six months and one, two and five years later and at the latest follow-up. The Tönnis grade, acetabular index, Severin grade and signs of osteonecrosis were recorded. Results. A total of 67 hips (51%) were Tönnis grade 3/4 hips. By 12 months, 20 reductions (15%) had not been maintained, and these required open reduction. In all, 55% of these were Severin 1; the others were Severin 2, due to minor acetabular dysplasia. Of the 113 successful closed reductions, 98 hips (87%) were Severin 1. Surgery for residual DDH was offered for ten hips. Osteonecrosis was seen in 32 hips (29%) but was transient in 28. In total, two children (1.5%) had severe osteonecrosis. Bilateral dislocations were significantly more likely to fail and most Tönnis 4 hips failed. Conclusion. Closed reduction, with concomitant adductor and psoas release when required and the use of a short leg plaster of Paris cast for three months, can produce good mid-term results in children with DDH aged less than two years. This protocol is not recommended for Tönnis 4 hips. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2016;98-B:1548–53

Stable fractures of the ankle can be successfully treated non-operatively by a below-knee plaster cast. In some centres, patients with this injury are routinely administered low-molecular-weight heparin, to reduce the risk of deep-vein thrombosis (DVT). We have assessed the incidence of DVT in 100 patients in the absence of any thromboprophylaxis. A colour Doppler duplex ultrasound scan was done at the time of the removal of the cast. Five patients did develop DVT, though none had clinical signs suggestive of it. One case involved the femoral and another the popliteal vein. No patient developed pulmonary embolism. As the incidence of DVT after ankle fractures is low, we do not recommend routine thromboprophylaxis

Aims

The primary aim of this study is to quantify and compare outcomes following a dorsally displaced fracture of the distal radius in elderly patients (aged ≥ 65 years) who are managed conservatively versus with surgical fixation (open reduction and internal fixation). Secondary aims are to assess and compare upper limb-specific function, health-related quality of life, wrist pain, complications, grip strength, range of motion, radiological parameters, healthcare resource use, and cost-effectiveness between the groups.

Rockers are applied to lower limb casts to assist walking but there is little information on their biomechanical effects. The performances of 10 commercially available rockers were compared. They were applied to a below-knee cast worn by a normal subject who was also tested walking in the cast alone. Gait analysis was used to evaluate kinematic and kinetic data. The design of rocker had no effect upon the kinematics of walking. However, using new criteria for kinetic assessment of rocker function (tibial floor angular velocity and centre of pressure progression), most designs had a deleterious effect on the biomechanics of gait. Only two rockers approached the ideal kinetic criteria

We have had experience of an 18-month-old boy with a cardiomyopathy who died a few minutes after removal of his cast with a saw, apparently from a malignant cardiac arrhythmia triggered by anxiety. We therefore examined the anxiety reaction to this method of removal of a plaster cast in 20 healthy children; ten were provided with hearing protectors and ten were not. The level of anxiety was assessed by measuring the heart rate, a known physiological indicator of anxiety, before, during and five minutes after removal of the cast. The noise level was also measured. The results showed a mean increase in heart rate during the procedure of 27.9 beats per minute (bpm) (26.9%) in the children with no hearing protectors and 10.4 bpm (11.1%) in children who used hearing protectors (p < 0.001). Five minutes after the procedure the heart rate had returned to the baseline rate in all patients. We recommend that hearing protectors should be used in children undergoing removal of a plaster cast to decrease the anxiety reaction. If possible, clinicians should avoid the use of a saw for this purpose in children with a cardiomyopathy

Fractures of the proximal forearm in young children may be unstable with the elbow flexed but stable with it in extension. Fifteen such fractures were managed by immobilisation in long-arm casts with the elbow extended. Only one patient had more than 15 degrees angulation at the time of bony union. All obtained normal elbow movement at two weeks and full forearm rotation at follow-up. No casts fell off. The extended elbow cast is awkward but it provides an alternative to internal fixation for some unstable fractures

Continuous passive motion has been shown to be effective in the conservative treatment of idiopathic club foot. We wished to determine whether its use after operation could improve the results in resistant club feet which required an extensive soft-tissue release. There were 50 feet in the study. Posteromedial lateral release was performed in 39 feet but two were excluded due to early relapse. The mean age at surgery was eight months (5 to 12). Each foot was assigned a Dimeglio club foot score, which was used as a primary outcome measure, before operation and at 6, 12, 18 and 44 months after. Nineteen feet were randomly selected to receive continuous passive motion and 18 had standard immobilisation in a cast. After surgery and subsequent immobilisation in a cast the Dimeglio club foot score improved from 10.3 before to 4.17 by 12 months and to 3.89 at 48 months. After operation followed by continuous passive motion the score improved from 9.68 before to 3.11 after 12 months, but deteriorated to 4.47 at 48 months. Analysis of variance adjusted for baseline values indicated a significantly better score in those having continuous passive motion up to one year after surgery, but after 18 and 48 months the outcomes were the same in both groups

We describe a direct method of measuring the tightness of plaster casts. Tightness was measured weekly in 23 consecutive patients with Colles' fractures. Six had objective signs of algodystrophy nine weeks after the fracture. In these patients the plaster cast was significantly tighter during the first three weeks than in patients who did not develop algodystrophy. The complex relationship between these findings is discussed

Aims. To compare operative and nonoperative treatment for displaced distal radius fractures in patients aged over 65 years. Methods. A total of 100 patients were randomized in this non-inferiority trial, comparing cast immobilization with operation with a volar locking plate. Patients with displaced AO/OTA A and C fractures were eligible if one of the following were found after initial closed reduction: 1) dorsal angulation > 10°; 2) ulnar variance > 3 mm; or 3) intra-articular step-off > 2 mm. Primary outcome measure was the abbreviated version of the Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand questionnaire (QuickDASH) after 12 months. Secondary outcome measures were the Patient-Rated Wrist and Hand Evaluation (PRWHE), EuroQol-5 dimensions 5-level questionnaire (EQ-5D-5L), range of motion (ROM), grip strength, “satisfaction with wrist function” (score 0 to 10), and complications. Results. In all, 89 women and 11 men were included. Mean age was 74 years (65 to 91). Nonoperative treatment was non-inferior to operation with a five-point difference in median QuickDASH after 12 months (p = 0.206). After three and six months QuickDASH favoured the operative group (p = 0.010 and 0.030). Median values for PRWHE were 19 (interquartile range (IRQ) 10 to 32) in the operative group versus ten (IQR 1 to 31) in the nonoperative group at three months (p = 0.064), nine (IQR 2 to 20) versus five (IQR 0 to 13) (p = 0.020) at six months, and two (IQR 0 to 12) versus zero (IQR 0 to 8) (p = 0.019) after 12 months. Range of motion was similar between the groups. The EQ-5D-5L index score was better (mean difference 0.07) in the operative group at three and 12 months (p = 0.008 and 0.020). The complication rate was similar (p = 0.220). The operated patients were more satisfied with wrist function (median 8 (IQR 6 to 9) vs 6 (IQR 5 to 7) at three months, p = 0.002; 9 (IQR 7 to 9) vs 8 (IQR 6 to 8) at six months, p = 0.002; and 10 (IQR 8 to 10) vs 8 (IQR 7 to 9) at 12 months, p < 0.001). Conclusion. Nonoperative treatment was non-inferior to operative treatment based on QuickDASH after one year. Patients in the operative group had a faster recovery and were more satisfied with wrist function. Results from previous trials comparing operative and nonoperative treatment for displaced distal radius fractures in the elderly vary between favouring the operative group and showing similar results between the treatments. This randomized trial suggests that most elderly patients may be treated nonoperatively. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2021;103-B(2):247–255

In this prospective study of 18 hips we compared the efficacy of ultrasound with CT in determining the position of the femoral head in a spica cast after closed or open reduction in children with developmental dysplasia of the hip. Ultrasound was performed through the perineal opening of the cast. With a transinguinal approach, the superior ramus of the pubis, the acetabulum, the femoral head and the femoral neck can be depicted in one plane. The CT and ultrasound images were blinded and reviewed by two of the authors. Ultrasound was inconclusive in the first two reductions since the perineal opening was too small to see all the landmarks in one plane. In the following 16 reductions the landmarks were well defined and interpretation of the CT and ultrasound was similar. The perineal opening in the spica cast should be made in such a way that the ultrasound probe can be positioned in the groin so that the landmarks can be shown in one plane

In a prospective study, we randomly allocated 39 patients with isolated fractures of the lower two-thirds of the ulnar shaft to treatment either by a prefabricated functional brace or a long-arm cast. Significantly better wrist function and a higher percentage of satisfied patients were found in the braced group. Thirteen patients returned to employment while still wearing the brace but only one was able to work in a cast

Ulceration of the insensitive foot continues to cause great morbidity in diabetic patients. We treated 46 patients with neuropathic ulceration by applying total contact casts. Most neuropathic ulcers healed within six weeks but ischaemic ulcers did not heal. One patient developed gangrene and required partial amputation of the foot

We report the outcome at a mean of 93 months (73 to 110) of 71 patients with an acute fracture of the scaphoid who were randomised to Herbert screw fixation (35) or below-elbow plaster cast immobilisation (36). These 71 patients represent the majority of a randomised series of 88 patients whose short-term outcome has previously been reported. Those patients available for later review were similar in age, gender and hand dominance. There was no statistical difference in symptoms and disability as assessed by the mean Patient Evaluation Measure (p = 0.4), or mean Patient-Rated Wrist Evaluation (p = 0.9), the mean range of movement of the wrist (p = 0.4), mean grip strength (p = 0.8), or mean pinch strength (p = 0.4). Radiographs were available from the final review for 59 patients. Osteoarthritic changes were seen in the scaphotrapezial and radioscaphoid joints in eight (13.5%) and six patients (10.2%), respectively. Three patients had asymptomatic lucency surrounding the screw. One non-operatively treated patient developed nonunion with avascular necrosis. In five patients who were treated non-operatively (16%) there was an abnormal scapholunate angle ( > 60°), but in four of these patients this finding was asymptomatic. No medium-term difference in function or radiological outcome was identified between the two treatment groups

Hinged casts and roller traction were used in two developing countries to treat fractured femora, most of which were due to road traffic accidents or civil violence. This method of treatment, developed by Neufeld, is particularly useful in the Third World because it uses local materials, adapted in a hospital workshop, and circumvents the difficulties and complications of standard traction and of operative treatment. The results are reported from 11 patients treated in Uganda in 1979 and from 110 treated in the Dominican Republic in 1981 and 1982. All but one fracture united without complication or significant shortening after a brief period in hospital. The method was easily taught to hospital staff and is strongly recommended

The use of Orthoplast cast-bracing to allow early hand function in the treatment of displaced Colles' fractures was investigated in 243 patients. They were randomly allocated into three groups: in the first a conventional Colles' type plaster was used; in the second an above-elbow cast-brace with the forearm in supination; and in the third a below-elbow cast-brace. Radiographic measurements were made at each stage of treatment, and the final anatomical result was scored using Sarmiento's (1975) criteria. Function was assessed at three months and at six months. The anatomical result was not influenced by the method of immobilisation but was related to the efficacy of reduction. Loss of position in the braces was no greater than in plaster. The functional result at three months also was uninfluenced by the method of immobilisation; it was, however, related to the severity of the initial displacement, and (to a lesser degree) to the anatomical result, an effect which was lost at six months. Early hand function and the supinated position advocated by Sarmiento were found to confer no anatomical or functional advantage; we could see no reason to change from the use of conventional plaster casts in the treatment of uncomplicated Colles' fractures

Most patients with a nightstick fracture of the ulna are treated conservatively. Various techniques of immobilisation or early mobilisation have been studied. We performed a systematic review of all published randomised controlled trials and observational studies that have assessed the outcome of these fractures following above- or below-elbow immobilisation, bracing and early mobilisation. We searched multiple electronic databases, related bibliographies and other studies. We included 27 studies comprising 1629 fractures in the final analysis. The data relating to the time to radiological union and the rates of delayed union and nonunion could be pooled and analysed statistically.

We found that early mobilisation produced the shortest radiological time to union (mean 8.0 weeks) and the lowest mean rate of nonunion (0.6%). Fractures treated with above- or below-elbow immobilisation and braces had longer mean radiological times to union (9.2 weeks, 9.2 weeks and 8.7 weeks, respectively) and higher mean rates of nonunion (3.8%, 2.1% and 0.8%, respectively). There was no statistically significant difference in the rate of non- or delayed union between those treated by early mobilisation and the three forms of immobilisation (p = 0.142 to p = 1.000, respectively). All the studies had significant biases, but until a robust randomised controlled trial is undertaken the best advice for the treatment of undisplaced or partially displaced nightstick fractures appears to be early mobilisation, with a removable forearm support for comfort as required.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:952–9.

Aims. Eccentric reductions may become concentric through femoral head ‘docking’ (FHD) following closed reduction (CR) for developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH). However, changes regarding position and morphology through FHD are not well understood. We aimed to assess these changes using serial MRI. Methods. We reviewed 103 patients with DDH successfully treated by CR and spica casting in a single institution between January 2016 and December 2020. MRI was routinely performed immediately after CR and at the end of each cast. Using MRI, we described the labrum-acetabular cartilage complex (LACC) morphology, and measured the femoral head to triradiate cartilage distance (FTD) on the midcoronal section. A total of 13 hips with initial complete reduction (i.e. FTD < 1 mm) and ten hips with incomplete MRI follow-up were excluded. A total of 86 patients (92 hips) with a FTD > 1 mm were included in the analysis. Results. At the end of the first cast period, 73 hips (79.3%) had a FTD < 1 mm. Multiple regression analysis showed that FTD (p = 0.011) and immobilization duration (p = 0.028) were associated with complete reduction. At the end of the second cast period, all 92 hips achieved complete reduction. The LACC on initial MRI was inverted in 69 hips (75.0%), partly inverted in 16 hips (17.4%), and everted in seven hips (7.6%). The LACC became everted-congruent in 45 hips (48.9%) and 92 hips (100%) at the end of the first and second cast period, respectively. However, a residual inverted labrum was present in 50/85 hips (58.8%) with an initial inverted or partly inverted LACC. Conclusion. An eccentric reduction can become concentric after complete reduction and LACC remodelling following CR for DDH. Varying immobilization durations were required for achieving complete reduction. A residual inverted labrum was present in more than half of all hips after LACC remodelling. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2023;105-B(2):140–147

Aims. The aim of this study was to explore parents’ experience of their child’s recovery, and their thoughts about their decision to enrol their child in a randomized controlled trial (RCT) of surgery versus non-surgical casting for a displaced distal radius fracture. Methods. A total of 20 parents of children from 13 hospitals participating in the RCT took part in an interview five to 11 months after injury. Interviews were informed by phenomenology and analyzed using thematic analysis. Results. Analysis of the findings identified the theme “being recovered”, which conveyed: 1) parents’ acceptance and belief that their child received the best treatment for them; 2) their memory of the psychological impact of the injury for their child; and 3) their pride in how their child coped with their cast and returned to activities. The process of recovery was underpinned by three elements of experience: accepting the treatment, supporting their child through challenges during recovery, and appreciating their child’s resilience. These findings extend our framework that highlights parents’ desire to protect their child during early recovery from injury, by making the right decision, worrying about recovery, and comforting their child. Conclusion. By one year after injury, parents in both treatment groups considered their child “recovered”. They had overcome early concerns about healing, the appearance of the wrist, and coping after cast removal. Greater educational support for families during recovery would enable parents and their child to cope with the uncertainty of recovery, particularly addressing the loss of confidence, worry about reinjury, and the appearance of their wrist. Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2024;5(5):426–434

Aims. This study aimed to compare the outcomes of two different postoperative management approaches following surgical fixation of ankle fractures: traditional cast immobilization versus the Early Motion and Directed Exercise (EMADE) programme. Methods. A total of 157 patients aged 18 years or older who underwent successful open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF) of Weber B (AO44B) ankle fractures were recruited to this randomized controlled trial. At two weeks post-surgical fixation, participants were randomized to either light-weight cast-immobilization or the EMADE programme, consisting of progressive home exercises and weekly advice and education. Both groups were restricted to non-weightbearing until six weeks post-surgery. The primary outcome was assessed using the Olerud-Molander Ankle Score (OMAS) questionnaire at 12 weeks post-surgery, with secondary measures at two, six, 24, and 52 weeks. Exploratory cost-effectiveness analyses were also performed. Results. Overall, 130 participants returned their 12-week OMAS questionnaires. The mean OMAS was significantly higher in the EMADE group compared with the immobilized group (62.0 (SD 20.9) vs 48.8 (SD 22.5)), with a clinically meaningful mean difference of 13.2 (95% CI 5.66 to 20.73; p < 0.001). These differences were maintained at week 24, with convergence by week 52. No intervention-related adverse events, including instability, were reported. Conclusion. The EMADE programme demonstrated an accelerated recovery compared to traditional six-week cast immobilization for those who have undergone ORIF surgery to stabilize Weber B (AO44B) ankle fractures. The study found the EMADE intervention to be safe. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2024;106-B(9):949–956

Aims. There is a lack of published evidence relating to the rate of nonunion seen in occult scaphoid fractures, diagnosed only after MRI. This study reports the rate of delayed union and nonunion in a cohort of patients with MRI-detected acute scaphoid fractures. Methods. This multicentre cohort study at eight centres in the UK included all patients with an acute scaphoid fracture diagnosed on MRI having presented acutely following wrist trauma with normal radiographs. Data were gathered retrospectively for a minimum of 12 months at each centre. The primary outcome measures were the rate of acute surgery, delayed union, and nonunion. Results. A total of 1,989 patients underwent acute MRI for a suspected scaphoid fracture during the study period, of which 256 patients (12.9%) were diagnosed with a previously occult scaphoid fracture. Of the patients with scaphoid fractures, six underwent early surgical fixation (2.3%) and there was a total of 16 cases of delayed or nonunion (6.3%) in the remaining 250 patients treated with cast immobilization. Of the nine nonunions (3.5%), seven underwent surgery (2.7%), one opted for non-surgical treatment, and one failed to attend follow-up. Of the seven delayed unions (2.7%), one (0.4%) was treated with surgery at two months, one (0.4%) did not attend further follow-up, and the remaining five fractures (1.9%) healed after further cast immobilization. All fractures treated with surgery had united at follow-up. There was one complication of surgery (prominent screw requiring removal). Conclusion. MRI-detected scaphoid fractures are not universally benign, with delayed or nonunion of scaphoid fractures diagnosed only after MRI seen in over 6% despite appropriate initial immobilization, with most of these patients with nonunion requiring surgery to achieve union. This study adds weight to the evidence base supporting the use of early MRI for these patients. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2024;106-B(4):387–393

The June 2024 Children’s orthopaedics Roundup. 360. looks at: Proximal femoral unicameral bone cysts: is ESIN the answer?; Hybrid-mesh casts in the conservative management of paediatric supracondylar humeral fractures: a randomized controlled trial; Rate and risk factors for contralateral slippage in adolescents treated for slipped capital femoral epiphysis; CRP predicts the need to escalate care after initial debridement for musculoskeletal infection; Genu valgum in paediatric patients presenting with patellofemoral instability; Nusinersen therapy changed the natural course of spinal muscular atrophy type 1: what about spine and hip?; The necessity of ulnar nerve exploration and translocation in open reduction of medial humeral epicondyle fractures in children

The August 2023 Trauma Roundup. 360. looks at: A comparison of functional cast and volar-flexion ulnar deviation for dorsally displaced distal radius fractures; Give your stable ankle fractures some AIR!; Early stabilization of rib fractures – an effective thing to do?; Locked plating versus nailing for proximal tibia fractures: A multicentre randomized controlled trial; Time to flap coverage in open tibia fractures; Does tranexamic acid affect the incidence of heterotropic ossification around the elbow?; High BMI – good or bad in surgical fixation of hip fractures?

The February 2024 Children’s orthopaedics Roundup. 360. looks at: Hip impingement after in situ pinning causes decreased flexion and forced external rotation in flexion on 3D-CT; Triplane ankle fracture patterns in paediatric patients; Improved forearm rotation even after early conversion to below-elbow; Selective dorsal rhizotomy and cerebral palsy (CP) hip displacement; Abduction bracing following anterior open reduction for developmental dysplasia of the hip does not improve residual dysplasia or reduce secondary surgery; 40% risk of later total hip arthroplasty for in situ slipped capital femoral epiphysis (SCFE) pinning; Does brace treatment following closed reduction of developmental dysplasia of the hip improve acetabular coverage?; Waterproof hip spica casts for paediatric femur fractures