In adults with brachial plexus injuries, lack of active external rotation at the shoulder is one of the most common residual deficits, significantly compromising upper limb function. There is a paucity of evidence to address this complex issue. We present our experience of isolated latissimus dorsi (LD) muscle transfer to achieve active external rotation. This is a retrospective review of 24 adult post-traumatic plexopathy patients who underwent isolated latissimus dorsi muscle transfer to restore external rotation of the shoulder between 1997 and 2010. All patients were male with a mean age of 34 years (21 to 57). All the patients underwent isolated LD muscle transfer using a standard technique to correct external rotational deficit. Outcome was assessed for improvement in active external rotation, arc of movement, muscle strength and return to work. The mean improvement in active external rotation from neutral was 24° (10° to 50°). The mean increase in arc of rotation was 52° (38° to 55°). Mean power of the external rotators was 3.5 Medical Research Council (MRC) grades (2 to 5). A total of 21 patients (88%) were back in work by the time of last follow up. Of these, 13 had returned to their pre-injury occupation. Isolated latissimus dorsi muscle transfer provides a simple and reliable method of restoring useful active external rotation in adults with brachial plexus injuries with internal rotational deformity. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:660–3

We reviewed the outcome of arthroscopic stabilisation of anterior glenohumeral instability in young adults using the transglenoid suture technique. A questionnaire was sent to 455 consecutive patients who had undergone this procedure between 1992 and 2000. Of these, 312 patients (68.5%) with 313 affected shoulders and a mean age of 20 years (18 to 28) responded. Outcome was determined by the number of re-dislocations or, in patients who had not re-dislocated, by the disease-specific quality of life as measured by the Western Ontario Shoulder Instability index. During a mean follow-up of 6.4 years (1 to 14), 177 patients (56%) sustained a re-dislocation, including 70 who required a further operation. In 136 patients (44%) who reported neither re-dislocation nor re-operation, the index scores were good (median 90.4%; 28.9% to 100%). No significant peri- or pre-operative predictors of re-dislocation or re-operation were found. We found a high rate of re-dislocation after transglenoid suture repair in young, physically active patients

We diagnosed 50 patients (58 shoulders) with a mean age at presentation of 17.3 years, as having involuntary positional instability of the shoulder. They were managed by a programme consisting of a careful explanation, analysis of abnormal muscle couples and then muscle retraining carried out by a specialist physiotherapist. The mean follow-up was two years. Six shoulders had a poor result, but 52 were graded as good to excellent. Nine patients (12 shoulders) relapsed and required further episodes of retraining.

In our experience, involuntary positional instability of the shoulder causes symptoms which interfere with normal activities; these can be controlled by a treatment plan of retraining of the muscle pattern with functional benefit. Only 19 of the patients were referred with a diagnosis of positional instability. There should be more awareness of this rather uncommon condition. Surgery is not indicated in these patients.

Aims. To evaluate if union of clavicle fractures can be predicted at six weeks post-injury by the presence of bridging callus on ultrasound. Methods. Adult patients managed nonoperatively with a displaced mid-shaft clavicle were recruited prospectively. Ultrasound evaluation of the fracture was undertaken to determine if sonographic bridging callus was present. Clinical risk factors at six weeks were used to stratify patients at high risk of nonunion with a combination of Quick Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand questionnaire (QuickDASH) ≥ 40, fracture movement on examination, or absence of callus on radiograph. Results. A total of 112 patients completed follow-up at six months with a nonunion incidence of 16.7% (n = 18/112). Sonographic bridging callus was detected in 62.5% (n = 70/112) of the cohort at six weeks post-injury. If present, union occurred in 98.6% of the fractures (n = 69/70). If absent, nonunion developed in 40.5% of cases (n = 17/42). The sensitivity to predict union with sonographic bridging callus at six weeks was 73.4% and the specificity was 94.4%. Regression analysis found that failure to detect sonographic bridging callus at six weeks was associated with older age, female sex, simple fracture pattern, smoking, and greater fracture displacement (Nagelkerke R. 2. = 0.48). Of the cohort, 30.4% (n = 34/112) had absent sonographic bridging callus in addition to one or more of the clinical risk factors at six weeks that predispose to nonunion. If one was present the nonunion rate was 35%, 60% with two, and 100% when combined with all three. Conclusion. Ultrasound combined with clinical risk factors can accurately predict fracture healing at six weeks following a displaced midshaft clavicle fracture. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2021;10(2):113–121

Aims

An objective technological solution for tracking adherence to at-home shoulder physiotherapy is important for improving patient engagement and rehabilitation outcomes, but remains a significant challenge. The aim of this research was to evaluate performance of machine-learning (ML) methodologies for detecting and classifying inertial data collected during in-clinic and at-home shoulder physiotherapy exercise.

Aims

Rotator cuff muscle atrophy and fatty infiltration affect the clinical outcomes of rotator cuff tear patients. However, there is no effective treatment for fatty infiltration at this time. High-intensity interval training (HIIT) helps to activate beige adipose tissue. The goal of this study was to test the role of HIIT in improving muscle quality in a rotator cuff tear model via the β3 adrenergic receptor (β3AR).

Aims

Rotator cuff (RC) injuries are characterized by tendon rupture, muscle atrophy, retraction, and fatty infiltration, which increase injury severity and jeopardize adequate tendon repair. Epigenetic drugs, such as histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACis), possess the capacity to redefine the molecular signature of cells, and they may have the potential to inhibit the transformation of the fibro-adipogenic progenitors (FAPs) within the skeletal muscle into adipocyte-like cells, concurrently enhancing the myogenic potential of the satellite cells.

Aims

Rotator cuff (RC) tears are common musculoskeletal injuries which often require surgical intervention. Noninvasive pulsed electromagnetic field (PEMF) devices have been approved for treatment of long-bone fracture nonunions and as an adjunct to lumbar and cervical spine fusion surgery. This study aimed to assess the effect of continuous PEMF on postoperative RC healing in a rat RC repair model.

We have compared the functional outcome after glenohumeral fusion for the sequelae of trauma to the brachial plexus between two groups of adult patients reviewed after a mean interval of 70 months. Group A (11 patients) had upper palsy with a functional hand and group B (16 patients) total palsy with a flail hand. All 27 patients had recovered active elbow flexion against resistance before shoulder fusion. Both groups showed increased functional capabilities after glenohumeral arthrodesis and a flail hand did not influence the post-operative active range of movement. The strength of pectoralis major is a significant prognostic factor in terms of ultimate excursion of the hand and of shoulder strength. Glenohumeral arthrodesis improves function in patients who have recovered active elbow flexion after brachial plexus palsy even when the hand remains paralysed

Objectives

Traumatic brachial plexus injury causes severe functional impairment of the arm. Elbow flexion is often affected. Nerve surgery or tendon transfers provide the only means to obtain improved elbow flexion. Unfortunately, the functionality of the arm often remains insufficient. Stem cell therapy could potentially improve muscle strength and avoid muscle-tendon transfer. This pilot study assesses the safety and regenerative potential of autologous bone marrow-derived mononuclear cell injection in partially denervated biceps.

Lateral clavicular physeal injuries in adolescents are frequently misinterpreted as acromioclavicular dislocations. There are currently no clear guidelines for the management of these relatively rare injuries. Non-operative treatment can result in a cosmetic deformity, warranting resection of the non-remodelled original lateral clavicle. However, fixation with Kirschner (K)-wires may be associated with infection and/or prominent metalwork. We report our experience with a small series of such cases.

Between October 2008 and October 2011 five patients with lateral clavicular physeal fractures (types III, IV and V) presented to our unit. There were four boys and one girl with a mean age of 12.8 years (9 to 14). Four fractures were significantly displaced and treated operatively using a tension band suture technique. One grade III fracture was treated conservatively. The mean follow-up was 26 months (6 to 42).

All patients made an uncomplicated recovery. The mean time to discharge was three months. The QuickDASH score at follow-up was 0 for each patient. No patient developed subsequent growth disturbances.

We advocate the surgical treatment of significantly displaced Grade IV and V fractures to avoid cosmetic deformity. A tension band suture technique avoids the problems of retained metalwork and the need for a secondary procedure. Excellent clinical and radiological results were seen in all our patients.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:664–7.

The sternoclavicular joint (SCJ) is a pivotal articulation in the linked system of the upper limb girdle, providing load-bearing in compression while resisting displacement in tension or distraction at the manubrium sterni. The SCJ and acromioclavicular joint (ACJ) both have a small surface area of contact protected by an intra-articular fibrocartilaginous disc and are supported by strong extrinsic and intrinsic capsular ligaments. The function of load-sharing in the upper limb by bulky periscapular and thoracobrachial muscles is extremely important to the longevity of both joints. Ligamentous and capsular laxity changes with age, exposing both joints to greater strain, which may explain the rising incidence of arthritis in both with age. The incidence of arthritis in the SCJ is less than that in the ACJ, suggesting that the extrinsic ligaments of the SCJ provide greater stability than the coracoclavicular ligaments of the ACJ.

Instability of the SCJ is rare and can be difficult to distinguish from medial clavicular physeal or metaphyseal fracture-separation: cross-sectional imaging is often required. The distinction is important because the treatment options and outcomes of treatment are dissimilar, whereas the treatment and outcomes of ACJ separation and fracture of the lateral clavicle can be similar. Proper recognition and treatment of traumatic instability is vital as these injuries may be life-threatening. Instability of the SCJ does not always require surgical intervention. An accurate diagnosis is required before surgery can be considered, and we recommend the use of the Stanmore instability triangle. Most poor outcomes result from a failure to recognise the underlying pathology.

There is a natural reluctance for orthopaedic surgeons to operate in this area owing to unfamiliarity with, and the close proximity of, the related vascular structures, but the interposed sternohyoid and sternothyroid muscles are rarely injured and provide a clear boundary to the medial retroclavicular space, as well as an anatomical barrier to unsafe intervention.

This review presents current concepts of instability of the SCJ, describes the relevant surgical anatomy, provides a framework for diagnosis and management, including physiotherapy, and discusses the technical challenges of operative intervention.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:721–31.

We describe a new surgical technique for the treatment of lacerations of the extensor tendon in zone I, which involves a tenodesis using a length of palmaris longus tendon one-quarter of its width. After exposing the dorsal aspect of the distal interphalangeal joint and harvesting the tendon, a 1.5 mm drill bit is passed through the insertion of the extensor tendon into the distal phalanx where it penetrates through the skin of the pulp of the digit. The palmaris longus tendon is threaded through the drill hole from dorsal to ventral and the ventral end is tied in a simple knot and trimmed. The palmaris longus tendon is then sutured to the extensor tendon close to its insertion, and also at the middle of the middle phalanx.

The operation was undertaken on 67 patients: 27 with an acute injury and 40 patients with a chronic mallet deformity. One finger (or the thumb) was involved in each patient. At a mean follow-up of 12 months (6 to 18), 66 patients (98.5%) received excellent or good results according to both the American Society for Surgery of the Hand (ASSH) classification and Miller’s classification.

Tenodesis using palmaris longus tendon after complete division of an extensor tendon in zone 1 is a reliable form of treatment for isolated acute or chronic ruptures.

We systematically reviewed all the evidence published in the English language on proximal interphalangeal joint (PIPJ) replacement, to determine its effectiveness on the function of the hand and the associated post-operative complications.

Original studies were selected if they reported clinical outcome with a minimum of one year’s follow-up. Quality was assessed using the Cowley systematic review criteria modified for finger-joint replacements. Of 319 articles identified, only five were adequately reported according to our quality criteria; there were no randomised controlled trials. PIPJ replacements had a substantial effect size on hand pain of -23.2 (95% confidence interval (CI) -27.3 to -19.1) and grip strength 1.2 (95% CI -10.7 to 13.1), and a small effect on range of movement 0.2 (95% CI -0.4 to 0.8). A dorsal approach was most successful. Post-operative loosening occurred in 10% (95% CI 3 to 30) of ceramic and 12.5% (95% CI 7 to 21) of pyrocarbon replacements. Post-operative complications occurred in 27.8% (95% CI 20 to 37).

We conclude that the effectiveness of PIPJ replacement has not been established. Small observational case studies and short-term follow-up, together with insufficient reporting of patient data, functional outcomes and complications, limit the value of current evidence.

We recommend that a defined core set of patients, surgical and outcome data for this intervention be routinely and systematically collected within the framework of a joint registry.

Objectives

The aim of this study was to determine whether there is any significant difference in temporal measurements of pain, function and rates of re-tear for arthroscopic rotator cuff repair (RCR) patients compared with those patients undergoing open RCR.

Dislocation of the shoulder may occur during seizures in epileptics and other patients who have convulsions. Following the initial injury, recurrent instability is common owing to a tendency to develop large bony abnormalities of the humeral head and glenoid and a susceptibility to further seizures. Assessment is difficult and diagnosis may be missed, resulting in chronic locked dislocations with protracted morbidity. Many patients have medical comorbidities, and successful treatment requires a multidisciplinary approach addressing the underlying seizure disorder in addition to the shoulder pathology. The use of bony augmentation procedures may have improved the outcomes after surgical intervention, but currently there is no evidence-based consensus to guide treatment. This review outlines the epidemiology and pathoanatomy of seizure-related instability, summarising the currently-favoured options for treatment, and their results.

Inability to actively supinate the forearm makes common activities of daily living and certain vocational activities awkward or impossible to perform. A total of 11 patients with deficient supination of the arm underwent transfer of the tendon of flexor carpi ulnaris to the split tendon of brachioradialis with its bony insertion into the radial styloid left intact. Active supination beyond neutral rotation was a mean of 37.2° (25° to 49.5°) at a minimum follow-up of three years, representing a significant improvement (95% confidence interval 25 to 50, p < 0.001). Functional evaluation of the hand after this transfer showed excellent and good results in ten patients and fair in one.

The split tendon of brachioradialis as an insertion for transfer of the flexor carpi ulnaris appears to provide adequate supination of the forearm without altering the available pronation and avoids the domination of wrist extension sometimes associated with transfers of the flexor carpi ulnaris to the radial extensors of the wrist.

Frozen shoulder is commonly encountered in general orthopaedic practice. It may arise spontaneously without an obvious predisposing cause, or be associated with a variety of local or systemic disorders. Diagnosis is based upon the recognition of the characteristic features of the pain, and selective limitation of passive external rotation. The macroscopic and histological features of the capsular contracture are well-defined, but the underlying pathological processes remain poorly understood. It may cause protracted disability, and imposes a considerable burden on health service resources. Most patients are still managed by physiotherapy in primary care, and only the more refractory cases are referred for specialist intervention. Targeted therapy is not possible and treatment remains predominantly symptomatic. However, over the last ten years, more active interventions that may shorten the clinical course, such as capsular distension arthrography and arthroscopic capsular release, have become more popular.

This review describes the clinical and pathological features of frozen shoulder. We also outline the current treatment options, review the published results and present our own treatment algorithm.

We describe the use of a vascularised periosteal patch onlay graft based on the 1,2 intercompartmental supraretinacular artery in the management of 11 patients (ten men, one woman) with chronic nonunion involving the proximal third of the scaphoid. The mean age of the patients was 31 years (21 to 45) with the dominant hand affected in eight. Six of the patients were smokers and three had undergone previous surgery to the scaphoid. All of the proximal fragments were avascular. The presence of union was assessed using longitudinal axis CT.

Only three patients progressed to union of the scaphoid and four required a salvage operation for a symptomatic nonunion. The remaining four patients with a persistent nonunion are asymptomatic with low pain scores, good grip strength and a functional range of wrist movement.

Although this technique has potential technical advantages over vascularised pedicled bone grafting, the rate of union has been disappointing and we do not recommend it as a method of treatment.

Replacement of the shoulder in juvenile idiopathic arthritis is not often performed and there have been no published series to date.

We present nine glenohumeral hemiarthroplasties in eight patients with systemic or polyarticular juvenile idiopathic arthritis. The mean follow-up was six years (59 to 89 months). The mean age at the time of surgery was 32 years. Surgery took place at a mean of 27 years after diagnosis. The results indicated excellent relief from pain. There was restoration of useful function which deteriorated with time, in part because of progression of the systemic disease in this severely affected group. No patient has required revision to date and there has been no radiological evidence of loosening or osteolysis around the implants.

We discuss the pathoanatomical challenges unique to this group. There was very little space for a prosthetic joint and, in some cases, bony deformity and the small size necessitated the use of custom-made implants.

This is a prospective study of 107 repairs of obstetric brachial plexus palsy carried out between January 1990 and December 1999. The results in 100 children are presented. In partial lesions operation was advised when paralysis of abduction of the shoulder and of flexion of the elbow persisted after the age of three months and neurophysiological investigations predicted a poor prognosis. Operation was carried out earlier at about two months in complete lesions showing no sign of clinical recovery and with unfavourable neurophysiological investigations.

Twelve children presented at the age of 12 months or more; in three more repair was undertaken after earlier unsuccessful neurolysis. The median age at operation was four months, the mean seven months and a total of 237 spinal nerves were repaired.

The mean duration of follow-up after operation was 85 months (30 to 152). Good results were obtained in 33% of repairs of C5, in 55% of C6, in 24% of C7 and in 57% of operations on C8 and T1. No statistical difference was seen between a repair of C5 by graft or nerve transfer.

Posterior dislocation of the shoulder was observed in 30 cases. All were successfully relocated after the age of one year. In these children the results of repairs of C5 were reduced by a mean of 0.8 on the Gilbert score and 1.6 on the Mallett score. Pre-operative electrodiagnosis is a reliable indicator of the depth of the lesion and of the outcome after repair. Intra-operative somatosensory evoked potentials were helpful in the detection of occult intradural (pre-ganglionic) injury.

This study reports the application of a novel method for quantitatively determining differences in the mechanical properties of healthy and torn rotator cuff tissues. In order to overcome problems of stress risers at the grip-tendon interface that can obscure mechanical measurements of small tendons, we conducted our investigation using dynamic shear analysis.

Rotator cuff tendon specimens were obtained from 100 patients during shoulder surgery. They included 82 differently sized tears and 18 matched controls. We subjected biopsy samples of 3 mm in diameter to oscillatory deformation under compression using dynamic shear analysis. The storage modulus (G’) was calculated as an indicator of mechanical integrity.

Normal tendons had a significantly higher storage modulus than torn tendons, indicating that torn tendons are mechanically weaker than normal tendons (p = 0.003). Normal tendons had a significantly higher mean shear modulus than tendons with massive tears (p < 0.01).

Dynamic shear analysis allows the determination of shear mechanical properties of small tissue specimens obtained intra-operatively that could not be studied by conventional methods of tensile testing. These methods could be employed to investigate other musculoskeletal tissues. This pilot study provides some insight into mechanisms that might contribute to the failure of repair surgery, and with future application could help direct the most appropriate treatment for specific rotator cuff tears.

A suspected fracture of the scaphoid remains difficult to manage despite advances in knowledge and imaging methods. Immobilisation and restriction of activities in a young and active patient must be balanced against the risks of nonunion associated with an undiagnosed and undertreated fracture of the scaphoid.

The assessment of diagnostic tests for a suspected fracture of the scaphoid must take into account two important factors. First, the prevalence of true fractures among suspected fractures is low, which greatly reduces the probability that a positive test will correspond with a true fracture, as false positives are nearly as common as true positives. This situation is accounted for by Bayesian statistics. Secondly, there is no agreed reference standard for a true fracture, which necessitates the need for an alternative method of calculating diagnostic performance characteristics, based upon a statistical method which identifies clinical factors tending to associate (latent classes) in patients with a high probability of fracture.

The most successful diagnostic test to date is MRI, but in low-prevalence situations the positive predictive value of MRI is only 88%, and new data have documented the potential for false positive scans. The best strategy for improving the diagnosis of true fractures among suspected fractures of the scaphoid may well be to develop a clinical prediction rule incorporating a set of demographic and clinical factors which together increase the pre-test probability of a fracture of the scaphoid, in addition to developing increasingly sophisticated radiological tests.

We investigated the effect of delay before nerve repair on neuropathic pain after injury to the brachial plexus. We studied 148 patients, 85 prospectively and 63 retrospectively. The mean number of avulsed spinal nerves was 3.2 (1 to 5). Pain was measured by a linear visual analogue scale and by the peripheral nerve injury scale. Early repair was more effective than delayed repair in the relief from pain and there was a strong correlation between functional recovery and relief from pain.

Cubitus varus and valgus are the most common complications of supracondylar and lateral condylar fractures. Various combinations of osteotomy and fixation have been described to correct these deformities but each is associated with significant complications. In this study, we used distraction osteogenesis and Ilizarov frame fixation to treat 24 elbows in 23 patients with cubitus varus or valgus. Their clinical outcome was evaluated using the protocol of Bellemore et al. The mean time to follow-up was 18.3 months (10 to 36) and the mean time to frame removal was 13.5 weeks (8 to 20). The mean carrying angle was corrected from −18.7° (−10° to −30°) to 6.1° (2° to 10°) in patients with cubitus varus and from 36.5° (25° to 45°) to 9.4° (4° to 15°) in patients with cubitus valgus. There were 18 excellent and six good results.

The Ilizarov method with gradual distraction is a safe, stable, adjustable and versatile method of treating deformities at the elbow without the problems of an unsightly scar or limited range of movement, and gives a good clinical and radiological outcome. Tardy ulnar nerve palsy should be treated first by anterior transposition.

We have used Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) to characterise the chemical and structural composition of the tendons of the rotator cuff and to identify structural differences among anatomically distinct tears. Such information may help to identify biomarkers of tears and to provide insight into the rates of healing of different sizes of tear. The infrared spectra of 81 partial, small, medium, large and massive tears were measured using FTIR and compared with 11 uninjured control tendons. All the spectra were classified using standard techniques of multivariate analysis.

FTIR readily differentiates between normal and torn tendons, and different sizes of tear. We identified the key discriminating molecules and spectra altered in torn tendons to be carbohydrates/phospholipids (1030 cm⁻¹ to 1200 cm⁻¹), collagen (1300 cm⁻¹ to 1700 cm⁻¹ and 3000 cm⁻¹ to 3350 cm⁻¹) and lipids (2800 cm⁻¹ to 3000 cm⁻¹).

Our study has shown that FTIR spectroscopy can identify tears of the rotator cuff of varying size based upon distinguishable chemical and structural features. The onset of a tear is mainly associated with altered structural arrangements of collagen, with changes in lipids and carbohydrates. The approach described is rapid and has the potential to be used peri-operatively to determine the quality of the tendon and the extent of the disease, thus guiding surgical repair.

There are many types of treatment used to manage the frozen shoulder, but there is no consensus on how best to manage patients with this painful and debilitating condition. We conducted a review of the evidence of the effectiveness of interventions used to manage primary frozen shoulder using the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, the Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects, the Physiotherapy Evidence Database, MEDLINE and EMBASE without language or date restrictions up to April 2009. Two authors independently applied selection criteria and assessed the quality of systematic reviews using the Assessment of Multiple Systematic Reviews (AMSTAR) tool. Data were synthesised narratively, with emphasis placed on assessing the quality of evidence.

In total, 758 titles and abstracts were identified and screened, which resulted in the inclusion of 11 systematic reviews. Although these met most of the AMSTAR quality criteria, there was insufficient evidence to draw firm conclusions about the effectiveness of treatments commonly used to manage a frozen shoulder. This was mostly due to poor methodological quality and small sample size in primary studies included in the reviews. We found no reviews evaluating surgical interventions.

More rigorous randomised trials are needed to evaluate the treatments used for frozen shoulder.

Displaced fractures of the lateral end of the clavicle in young patients have a high incidence of nonunion and a poor functional outcome after conservative management. Operative treatment is therefore usually recommended. However, current techniques may be associated with complications which require removal of the fixation device. We have evaluated the functional and radiological outcomes using a novel technique of open reduction and internal fixation. A series of 16 patients under 60 years of age with displaced fractures of the lateral end were treated by open reduction and fixation using a twin coracoclavicular endobutton technique. They were followed up for the first year after their injury.

At one year the mean Constant score was 87.1 and the median Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand score was 3.3. All fractures had united, except in one patient who developed an asymptomatic fibrous union. One patient had post-traumatic stiffness of the shoulder, which resolved with physiotherapy. None required re-operation.

This technique produces good functional and radiological outcomes with a low prevalence of complications and routine implant removal is not necessary.

Restoration of hand function is rarely achieved after a complete closed traction lesion of the supraclavicular brachial plexus. We describe the injury, treatment, rehabilitation and long-term results of two patients who regained good function of the upper limb and useful function in the hand after such an injury. Successful repairs were performed within six days of injury. Tinel’s sign proved accurate in predicting the ruptures and the distribution of pain was accurate in predicting avulsion. The severe pain that began on the day of injury resolved with the onset of muscle function.

Recovery of muscle function preceded recovery of sensation. Recovery of the function of C and Aδ fibres was the slowest of all.

We report the results of performing a pronating osteotomy of the radius, coupled with other soft-tissue procedures, as part of an upper limb functional surgery programme in tetraplegic patients with supination contractures.

In total 12 patients were reviewed with a mean follow-up period of 60 months (12 to 109). Pre-operatively, passive movement ranged from a mean of 19.2° pronation (−70° to 80°) to 95.8° supination (80° to 140°). A pronating osteotomy of the radius was then performed with release of the interosseous membrane. Extension of the elbow was restored postoperatively in 11 patients, with key-pinch reconstruction in nine.

At the final follow-up every patient could stabilise their hand in pronation, with a mean active range of movement of 79.6° (60° to 90°) in pronation and 50.4° (0° to 90°) in supination. No complications were observed. The mean strength of extension of the elbow was 2.7 (2 to 3) MRC grading.

Pronating osteotomy stabilises the hand in pronation while preserving supination, if a complete release of the interosseous membrane is also performed. This technique fits well into surgical programmes for enhancing upper limb function.

The type II Monteggia (posterior) lesion is a rare injury which is sometimes associated with ulnohumeral instability. We have reviewed 23 of 28 patients with this injury. A clinical and radiographic assessment was undertaken at follow-up. Functional outcome scores, including the Broberg and Morrey Index and the Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder or Hand (DASH), were used. The results from the six patients with associated posterior ulnohumeral dislocation were compared with 17 without ulnohumeral injury. Those with dislocation had reduced movement of the elbow and had outcome scores indicative of greater disability compared to those without associated dislocation.

Ulnar neuropathy presents as a complication in 5% to 10% of total elbow replacements, but subsequent ulnar neurolysis is rarely performed. Little information is available on the surgical management of persistent ulnar neuropathy after elbow replacement. We describe our experience with the surgical management of this problem.

Of 1607 total elbow replacements performed at our institution between January 1969 and December 2004, eight patients (0.5%) had a further operation for persistent or progressive ulnar neuropathy. At a mean follow-up of 9.2 years (3.1 to 21.7) six were clinically improved and satisfied with their outcome, although, only four had complete recovery. When transposition was performed on a previously untransposed nerve the rate of recovery was 75%, but this was reduced to 25% if the nerve had been transposed at the time of the replacement.

Disorders of the pisotriquetral joint are well recognised as the cause of pain on the ulnar side of the wrist. The joint is not usually examined during routine arthroscopy because it is assumed to have a separate joint cavity to the radiocarpal joint, although there is often a connection between the two.

We explored this connection during arthroscopy and in fresh-frozen cadaver wrists and found that in about half of the cases the pisotriquetral joint could be visualised through standard wrist portals. Four different types of connection were observed between the radiocarpal joint and the pisotriquetral joint. They ranged from a complete membrane separating the two, to no membrane at all, with various other types of connection in between.

We recommend that inspection of the pisotriquetral joint should be a part of the protocol for routine arthroscopy of the wrist.

Hand function was evaluated in 105 patients who had been operated on in early infancy for brachial plexus birth palsy. The mean follow-up after surgery was for 13.4 years (5.0 to 31.5). Fine sensation, stereognosis, grip and pinch strength and the Raimondi scale were recorded.

Fine sensation was normal in 34 of 49 patients (69%) with C5–6 injury, 15 of 31 (48%) with C5–7 and in 8 of 25 (32%) with total injury. Loss of protective sensation or absent sensation was noted in some palmar areas of the hand in 12 of 105 patients (11%). Normal stereognosis was recorded in 88 of the 105 patients (84%), whereas only 9 of the 105 (9%) had normal grip strength. The mean Raimondi scale scores were 4.57 (3 to 5) (C5–6), 4.26 (1 to 5) (C5–7) and 2.16 (0 to 5) in patients with total injury.

The location of impaired sensation was related to the distribution of the root injury. Avulsion type of injury correlated with poor recovery of hand function.

We divided 309 patients with an inflammatory arthritis who had undergone primary elbow replacement using the Souter-Strathclyde implant into two groups according to their age. The mean follow-up in the older group (mean age 64 years) was 7.3 years while in the younger patients (mean age 42 years) it was 12 years. Survivorship for three different failure end-points (revision, revision because of aseptic loosening of the humeral component, and gross loosening of the humeral implant), was compared in both groups.

Our findings showed that there was no significant difference in the incidence of loosening when young rheumatoid patients were compared with an older age group.

Sixteen patients who underwent a revision operation for nonunion of fractures of the distal humerus following previous internal fixation were reviewed at a mean follow-up of 39 months (8 to 69).

The Mayo elbow performance score was excellent in 11, good in two, fair in two and poor in one. In 15 patients union was achieved and in one with an infected nonunion a subsequent bone graft was necessary in order to obtain union.

Age, gender, a history of smoking, mechanism of the injury and the AO classification of the initial fracture did not correlate with the development of nonunion. In 12 patients (75%), the initial fixation was assessed as being suboptimal. The primary surgery was regarded as adequate in only three patients. Our findings suggest that the most important determinant of nonunion of a distal humeral fracture after surgery is the adequacy of fixation.